School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources (SVAR) Collections

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    African animal and human trypanosomiasis in South Eastern Uganda: animal reservoirs, vector competence and characterisation of trypanosoma brucei isolates
    ( 2008-12-09) Waiswa, Charles
    This study was designed to investigate the factors responsible for the persistence of sleeping sickness in southeastern Uganda. In addition to the general aspects, this investigation was specifically designed to study the role of the domestic animal and vector competence as factors in the transmission and persistence of sleeping sickness in the affected foci of southeastern Uganda. The study area was zoned according to the agricultural system and three zones (designated zone I, II and III representing Kamuli, Mukono and Tororo districts respectively) were studied as these were found to be predominant in many of the sleeping sickness foci of Kamuli, Mukono and Tororo. Investigations carried out have indicated a trypanosomosis prevalence of 13.25% among cattle, 17.53% among pigs, 1.75% among small ruminants and 0% in dogs. These figures are high especially in cattle and pigs, moreover, the Trypanozoon prevalence was estimated at 4.99% among cattle, 13.89% among pigs and 0.44% in the small ruminants. Using the human serum resistance tests and PCR, this study has continued to emphasise the importance of cattle as a reservoir for T.b. rhodesiense and in addition, these techniques have proved that the pig (both BIIT and PCR) and sheep (BIIT) are very important reservoirs of T.b.rhodesiense. The sole vector for sleeping sickness in zone and II was found to be G.fuscipes fuscipes. However, in zone III, both G.f.fuscipes and G.pallidipes were trapped, with G.f.fuscipes (99.72% of the total tsetse trapped) being the predominant vector. The prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in zone I was 8.73%, with T.brcucei infections estimated at 3.87%. Of all the trypanosomes isolated from cattle, 44.33% were grouped as belonging to the T.brucei subgroup. On further characterisation with the human serum resistance test, none of these T.brucei subgroup isolates from cattle in this zone was potentially human infective. However, using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), one of the T.brucei isolates was found to be carrying the human serum resistance associated (SRA) gene, an indication that it was potentially human infective (T.b.rhodesiense) thus helping to define the role played by cattle in the transmission of sleeping sickness in this zone. Meanwhile, in this zone (zone I), the point prevalence of trypanosomosis in pigs was 16.33% and T.brucei subgroup infection among the infected pigs was 82.48%. When the T.brucei subgroup isolates were analysed, 30.19% were found to be potentially human infective by the human serum resistance test and 75% of the T.brucei subgroup isolates analysed by PCR were found to be carrying the SRA gene. The presence of potentially human infective T.brucei subgroup in pigs makes this animal species the predominant reservoir and the major risk factor in the transmission and persistence of sleeping sickness in zone I. In addition, 30.6% of the tsetse in zone I get their blood-meal from pigs, which implies that the “pig-tsetse-human cycle” is the predominant sleeping sickness transmission cycle in zone I. The prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in zone II was 13.08% with T.brucei subgroup infections estimated at 6.01%. Of the isolates characterized, 45.89% were grouped as T.brucei subgroup infections, of which 10.53% were potentially human infective according to the BIIT results and therefore grouped as T.b. rhodesiense. In addition 5% of the T.brucei subgroup isolates were found to be having the SRA gene. The cattle-tsetse-human sleeping sickness cycle is one of the two sleeping sickness transmission cycles in this zone. Similarly, the point prevalence of trypanosomosis in pigs in zone II was found to be 22.92%. The T.brucei subgroup infections among the trypanosomes isolated from the pigs was 85.51%. Of these T. brucei subgroup isolates, 26.09% were found to be potentially human infective as characterised by the BIIT. Using the SRA-PCR, 31.58% of the T. brucei subgroup analysed were found to be carrying the SRA gene. In addition to the cattle-tsetse-man cycle, the pig-tsetse-human sleeping sickness transmission cycle is the other major cycle in this zone which is supported by the 14.53% of the tsetse that get their bloodmeals from pigs in the zone. The prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in zone III was 17.91% with T.brucei subgroup infections estimated at 7.34%. Of all the trypanosome infections among cattle in this area, 41% were grouped as T.brucei subgroup infections. Using the human BIIT, 47.30% of these T.brucei subgroup isolates were found to be potentially human infective and therefore grouped as T.b.rhodesiense. Similarly, 23.81% of the T.brucei subgroup isolates from cattle were confirmed to be carrying the SRA gene. Basing on these results, the cattle-tsetsehuman is the major sleeping sickness transmission cycle in zone III. Meanwhile, the prevalence of trypanosomosis in pigs in this zone was 2.44% and there were no T.brucei subgroup infections detected, implying that pigs may be playing a minimal role in the transmission of sleeping sickness in this zone. For the small ruminants kept in zone III trypanosomosis prevalence was 13.79%. All the trypanosome infections were found in the sheep. Interestingly, a potentially human infective T.brucei trypanosome was isolated from the sheep in this zone, suggesting that the sheep-tsetse-human sleeping sickness transmission cycle is contributing to the persistence of sleeping sickness in this area. The trypanosome infection rates in tsetse were 1.75% in zone I, 1.00% in zone II and 1.82% in zone III. The species trapped in zone I and II was G.f.fuscipes, which was also predominant in zone III with few catches of G.pallidipes. The infections were detected in female tsetse that were more than three weeks old. There were no infections among the male tsetse in all the zones which has been attributed to the low average age of the males (11days or less), implying that the males don’t live long enough to allow the infection to mature. The tsetse feeding preference studies have supported the major sleeping sickness transmission cycles for the three zones as suggested above. A total of 394 tsetse blood-meals were analysed to identify the host that was the source of the blood meal. Hosts for 75.64% of the bloodmeals were identified and at 26.4%, cattle were on average the most preferred host for G.f.fuscipes in southeastern Uganda (all the three study zones combined). Of the bloodmeals analysed, 55.1% were identified as having come from domestic animals and humans. This study has recorded large percentages of domestic animals as the major hosts for tsetse in all the three zones. There were however differences in the contribution of individual hosts in the three zones, with pigs being the major host in zone I, the monitor lizard and cattle for zones II and III. The results also indicate that under natural circumstances, G.f.fuscipes will feed on the available hosts in a given ecological environment. The preferred hosts were mainly cattle, pig, monitor lizard, sheep, goat, human, dog and chicken. This study has indicated that the domestic animal-tsetse-human cycle is the major sleeping sickness transmission cycle in all the three zones, the differences being the animals acting as the disease reservoirs in the three sleeping sickness foci (Agroecological zones) of southeastern Uganda.
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    Analysis of poultry traditional indigenous knowledge mystical systems and their role in control and prevention of poultry diseases, Masaka District.
    (Makerere University, 2010-09) Nampanzira, Dorothy
    This study was done to analyse the poultry traditional indigenous knowledge mystical systems (TRIKOMS) and their role in control and prevention of poultry diseases in Masaka district, Uganda. This study aimed at, determining the meaning of myths and belief practices among different social classes identify and document the elements of myths and beliefs related to prevention and control of poultry diseases and to determine the factors that lead to the survival of the myths and belief practices in the community. Qualitative methods of data collection and analysis were used. Results of the study showed that the meaning underlying the myths and beliefs are, to strengthen socio relationships, ensure food security, promote human health and for spiritual or religious functions. In addition, majority (63%) of the myths and beliefs practices decoded encouraged poultry disease spread while 13.5% encouraged disease control. Furthermore, it was found out that there were no clear-cut channels of transfer of knowledge from one generation to the other and there are several factors that have led to the degradation of the myths and belief practices in the communities. The study concludes that despite the importance of TRIKOMS to communities there is a need to sensitize the communities on the potential role of these systems in the spread of poultry diseases. Human phenomenon is important in influencing the outcome of poultry disease control. Thus veterinary research scientists should desist from focusing on only poultry, pathogens and vectors in their research endeavors in poultry diseases control. More efforts ought to be directed towards understanding the human phenomenon.
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    Animal health intervations for human health benefits
    ( 2008-12-22) Fyfe, Jenna ; Waiswa, Charles ; Picozzi, Kim ; Odiit, Martin ; Coleman, Paul ; Welburn, Sue
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    Antibacterial and phytochemical properties of selected poultry ethnomedicinal plants in Masaka District
    ( 2010-12) Nalubega, Rebecca
    Poultry farmers have problems of poor production, poultry diseases and the publica is vulnerable to zoonoses. Indigenous practices such as the use of herbal medicines and concoctions have been a form of therapy for poultry among resource-poor small holder farmers. Indigenous practices are considered by scientists to be risky to both human and animal health. A few farmers use conventional veterinary drugs like antibiotics most times unnecessarily and this is making disease causing bacteria more resistant to the drugs and therefore becoming a threat to public health. Documentation and validation of indigenous medicine is therefore necessary because they are likely to be important in future especially given the trend of emerging diseases and the development of resistance of pathogens to drugs. To solve the problems facing the poultry industry, documentation of data about indigenous knowledge data about the herbal plants as well as antibacterial and phytochemical analysis to validate this data was carried out in this research. The information, focused group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted. Ethanol, ether and water extracts of selected medicinal plants and five concoctions were screened for antibacterial activity against Staph. aureus, Strep. faecalis, E. coli and S. typhimurium, using agar well diffusion and tube dilution methods. Their Phytochemical composition of selected plants was also investigated. The results indicated that fifty nine plants from 33 families were commonly used and family Asteraceae had the highest number while most frequently used plants were Cannabis sativa and Nicotiana tobaccam. Plants were mainly used for prophylaxis and the oral route was the common route of administration while leaves were the most commonly used plant parts. In general, gram-positive bacteria were more susceptible than gram-negative bacterial species. Ethanol and ether extracts had better antibacterial activity than water extracts. The water extract of Moringa oleifera had activity on all the four bacteria species. The water extracts of Persea americana had the lowest MIC on S. typhymurium therefore the best activity. Leonotis nepetifolia and Lantana trifolia had the lowest MIC on Staph. aureus therefore the best activity. Phytochemicals such as tannins, sterols, basic alkaloids and alkaloid salts featured in most of the tested plants. From these results, the study has found out that ethanol and ether are better solvents and can be used as alternative solvents to water by the poultry farmers to make medicinal preparations. The study has further shown that these plants have good antibacterial activity. Moringa oleifera leaves could be used to treat a wide number of diseases, Persea americana leaves could be used to treat salmonella infections while Leonotis nepetifolia and Lantana trifolia leaves could be used to treat staphylococcal infections in poultry. These plants also have phytochemicals of medicinal importance. However the study has not isolated the specific antibacterial principles, shown toxicity studies, shown activity of these plants on other organisms like other bacteria species, protozoa and helminths and carried out clinical trials. Further studies on these should therefore be carried out.
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    Antimicrobial resistance and presence of class 1 integrons in salmonella serovars isolated from clinical cases of animals and humans in North Dakota and Uganda.
    (OMICS, 2013) Mahero, M. ; Byarugaba, D. K. ; Doetkott, D. K. ; Olet, S. ; Khaitsa, M. L.
    Back ground: Salmonellae are one of the leading causes of food borne illness worldwide and have been used as indicator organisms for studying antimicrobial resistance (AMR) trends. In the United States, Salmonella are among organisms currently under public health surveillance for AMR. Objectives: The objective of this study was to characterise AMR patterns of Salmonella isolates from animals and humans in North Dakota (ND), and Kampala, Uganda and determine the association between the observed AMR and presence of class 1 and 2 integrons. Methods: Salmonella isolates were collected from the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (VDL) at North Dakota State University and the North Dakota Department of Health, from 2003 to2008. Additional samples were also retrieved from archives at the Microbiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda. AMR profiles were determined using a panel of 15 antimicrobials. Screening for the class 1 and 2 integrons was done using PCR with primers specific for the int1 and int2. Results: Out of 359 Salmonella isolates tested 36.2% were resistant to at least 2 antimicrobials. The highest resistance frequency was seen against Tetracycline (39.6%) and Streptomycin (34.7 %). A total of 20.7% (57/276) of the ND samples tested positive for presence of class 1 integrons and was significantly associated (p<0.05) with AMR to Ampicillin, Kanamycin, Tetracycline and Sulfisoxazole. Of all Ugandan Salmonella isolates tested (94.4% 68/72) were resistant to ≥2 antimicrobials with highest resistance observed against Sulfisoxazole and TrimethoprimSulphamethoxazole. Presence of class 1 integron was significantly associated (p<0.05) with AMR to Tetracycline and Amoxicillin. DNA sequencing of the class 1 integron variable regions identified several resistance genes including aadA1, dfrA7, and dfrA5 genes. Conclusion: These results signal serious implications for treatment of salmonellosis in both public and animal health.
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    Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of propolis extracts from four ecological zones of Uganda: its potential application in livestock health.
    (Makerere University, 2022-03-28) Nakabugo, Immaculate
    Propolis, a resinous bee product has been attracting global interest from the scientific community due to growing scientific evidence of its beneficial biological properties. While studies elsewhere document evidence of propolis action on diseases, evidence on the performance of Ugandan propolis remains lacking. This has led to less income contribution from bee keeping to rural livelihoods due to limited product diversity within the local market in Uganda. It is for this reason that this study investigated the colour, total phenol content, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties of propolis extracts from four ecological zones of Uganda. This study involved preparation of eight crude propolis extracts from the raw propolis collected from Lira, Soroti, Bunyangabo and Karamoja, by cold maceration method using ethanol and methanol solvent. Four colours of Ugandan propolis extracts were identified that is black, brown, orange and yellow. Methanol extracts had a higher yield of extraction (17.25 percent) than ethanol extracts (16.30 percent). The total phenol content of the extracts was determined spectrophotometrically by Folin–Ciocalteau method. Methanol extracts had higher phenolic compounds (73.23 mg GAE/g) than the ethanol extracts (39.95 mg GAE/g). The antioxidant properties (the free radical scavenging activity) of the propolis extracts were assayed using DPPH free radical assay. The antioxidant properties reported were generally low and ranged from 8.76 to 34.53 percent. Antimicrobial activity was tested against Gram negative bacteria that is Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC); isolated from active cases of colibacillosis among chicken, Staphylococcus aureus; (ATCC 25923) and Aspergillus niger; isolated from chicken feed. Sensitivity testing was done using the agar well diffusion method and Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was determined using broth dilution susceptibility test. Staphylococcus aureus was sensitive to all the analysed propolis extracts while APEC and Aspergillus niger were not. The activity of propolis against Staphylococcus aureus means that it has the potential for application in prevention and control of livestock diseases caused by this bacteria. However, there is need for further screening of the various colours of propolis collected at different seasons and to determine the components responsible for activity against Staph aureus. This will form basis for possible formulation and quality control of antimicrobial products from the extracts for further in vivo trials. The study recommends investigating level of contamination of propolis with heavy metals, effect of storage and handling on the physio-chemical properties of Ugandan propolis.
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    Assement of trypanosome prevalence in FITCA high risk areas
    ( 2009-04-08) Fyfe, Jenna ; Picozzi, K. ; Fevre, E. M. ; Waiswa, C. ; McDermott, J. ; Welburn, S. C.
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    Assement on the use of crop pesticides and acaricides in the control of ticks in cattle: A case study of Soroti District, Uganda.
    (Makerere University, 2025-08-15) Epiangu, Thomas
    Ticks and tick-borne diseases are a major constraint in cattle production and productivity, due to high tick prevalence, partly triggered by tick acaricide resistance and ignorance of cattle farmers on the use of rightful veterinary acaricides in the control of ticks in cattle. In the previous study in central Uganda, farmers reported using agrochemicals against ticks in cattle. Therefore, my study, using a cross sectional study, assessed the use of crop pesticides and acaricides in the control of cattle ticks by farmers in Soroti district, their knowledge and practices, and laboratory determination of efficacy of most commonly used crop pesticide and acaricide against R.As ticks, egg-inhibition and larvae. A total of 386 cattle farmers were interviewed using online structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and KIIs. Multistage random sampling technique was used to select respondents. Qualitative data were coded to identify recurring themes such as knowledge, practices and awareness about tick control using crop pesticides and veterinary acaricides. The impact of ticks and tick-borne diseases such as: Death of cattle, reduced calving rate and treatment costs, and subsequently, the perceived unavailability of efficacious veterinary acaricides in the rural settings compare to perceived readily available crop pesticides drove farmers towards use of crop pesticides against ticks. The most commonly used crop pesticide and acaricide in the control of ticks were profenofos 40% and Cypermethrine 4% (trade name rocket) by 75.06%, and Norotraz an amitraz 12.5% w\v having 64.42% of the cattle farmers reporting usage. Subsequently, 15.84% of the farmers used other methods like Ash, omo (detergent), piercing and hand picking of ticks for control. The most used equipment for crop pesticide and acaricide application were: Knap sac sprayer by 60% reported using, and the frequency of application of chemicals by cattle farmers against ticks was: weekly by (51.8 %), Bi-weekly (31.1%) and monthly (17.1%). Acaricide failures in tick control by farmers were due to: Wrong dilution dosages used, expired acaricides used, wrong intervals of spraying, missing on tick predilection sites and use of wrong equipment of applications. Farmers reported mixing different crop pesticides and acaricides to improve their efficacy against cattle ticks for instance, a concoction of (Cypermethrin crop pesticide with amitraz veterinary acaricide) known commonly as Duducyper and Norotraz. The most commonly used crop pesticide had higher mortality by (85%) and egg-layin
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    Assessment for aflatoxin levels in chicken layer feeds and eggs from selected farms in Wakiso District, Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2024-12) Wabule, Carolyne Brenda
    Aflatoxin contamination poses a significant threat to animal production, food safety and human health, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where conditions for its production are favorable. In this context, a comprehensive cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2023-November 2023 among layer chicken farms in Wakiso District, Uganda. The study aimed at filling a critical gap in understanding the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAPs) surrounding aflatoxin contamination with a specific focus on feed quality management and its implications for food safety at farm level. Additionally, detecting and quantification of total aflatoxins in naturally contaminated feeds and possible carry over of total aflatoxins and metabolite M1 to eggs. Purposive sampling was used with the aid of a semi-structured interview guide and observation to collect qualitative data from 31 farmers. Feed samples (29) and 26 egg samples were taken from the same farmers for aflatoxin contamination detection and quantification. Deductive thematic analysis was used to make inferences on collected qualitative data for themes and frequency table used to summarize KAPs. Total aflatoxins in feeds and eggs were then detected using Thin Layer Chromatography. Competitive ELISA was used to quantify total aflatoxins in feeds and eggs and metabolite M1. GraphPad Prime Software was used for quantitative data analysis with F test at significance level of 0.05. T test was used to determine if there were significant differences between means of aflatoxins of groups with varying farm practices. Four themes were got from the deductive thematic analysis ;Factors that influence type/source of feed used by layer chicken farms (experience,knowledge,size of enterprise, presence of concentrates),Duration of feed batch is influenced by size of the enterprise and resources, quality standards (organoleptic), capital and integration with other farm activities, Farmer knowledge on feed quality, Traceability of poultry feeds and quality testing, Awareness on Aflatoxin contamination and risk of carry-over, from which KAPs were summarized. This investigation unearthed a concerning lack of awareness among farmers, with a staggering 80.7% having no knowledge about aflatoxins before. However, the majority of farmers interviewed seemed to understand the pivotal role of feed quality in improving poultry productivity. This was evidenced through practices such as elevating feed off the ground, albeit with varying durations of storage. Moisture content analysis revealed that a substantial 91.20% of feed samples showed optimal drying and storage conditions with moisture content less than 12.5% against UNBS’s 13%, crucial for mitigating aflatoxin risks. Aflatoxin analysis in both feed and eggs painted a sobering picture of contamination, with higher concentrations detected in feed compared to eggs. Its however important to note that all the concentrations in feeds and eggs were below the recommended concentrations by UNBS of 10ppb and 20pp for B1 and total aflatoxins respectively. Interestingly, our factor assessment for contamination unveiled nuanced insights, indicating that more than 1 week of storage of feed significantly heightened the likelihood of aflatoxin contamination (P = 0.0091), while the physical location of storage whether on the floor or elevated platforms had negligible impact (P= 0.8817). Furthermore, the findings underscored the unsettling reality of aflatoxin carry-over from feed to eggs, highlighting a critical relationship between feed quality and egg safety. Ultimately, this study illuminates the pressing need for targeted interventions aimed at bolstering awareness, emphasis on storage conditions, and implementing stringent control measures to curb aflatoxin contamination in the layer chicken farming landscape. By fostering a collective understanding and proactive approach, we can pave the way towards safer and more resilient poultry production systems, safeguarding both farmer livelihoods and consumer health in the process. Further studies on the factors that may lead to aflatoxin contaminations at farm level should be done since there was a significant difference p<0.001 between individual farms.
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    Assessment of knowledge and detection of post weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome in pigs in selected Districts of Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2013-11) Eneku, Wilfred
    Postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) is a globally emergent epizootic disease of swine. The disease caused by Porcine Circovirus type 2 (PCV2) was first detected and described in Western Canada and has since spread to all the major pig producing countries of the world including Europe, the Americas and Asia. The occurrence of the disease in Uganda has been reported but the exact magnitude (distribution and severity) is not known. The disease has had significant economic, public health, and animal health effects on the pork industry in terms of reducing the number of pigs at slaughter, reduced feed conversion rate, increased costs for management and medication of sick pigs, and costs of treating secondary diseases following PMWS-associated immunosuppression. The immunosuppresseion may also cause increased carcass contamination by food-borne pathogens arising from potentially increased prevalence of infection on-farm and increased shedding at slaughter. This study was therefore carried to assess the knowledge of farmers on PMWS and detect the presence of PCV2 in pigs in districts around Kampala which form the largest number of pigs in the country and also serve as breeding stock for other regions. A total of 131 farmers and 12 key informants were interviewed with 3 focus group discussions conducted. Four hundred inguinal lymph node samples were collected in addition to lymph node and other visceral organs from 20 emaciated pigs with typical clinical signs reported or observed. The samples were examined with standard Hematoxylin and Eosin, Immunohistochemistry and Polymerase Chain Reaction techniques to detect lesions, antigens and genetic materials specific to PCV2. The results obtained were analyzed and descriptive statistics generated. Out of the 131 respondents, none of them ever knew about PMWS as well as field veterinarians. Eighty one percent of the farmers kept pigs under intensive system of management with the majority (77.1%) raising their own replacement stock while 99.2% of the farmers mixed piglets weaned from different sows with most farmers (63.4%) reporting that more than 70% of piglets survive up to breeding or market age. Fifty seven percent of the farmers reported that their piglets died when emaciated and that the disease could persist for more than 4 months with signs of PMWS. Most observed lesions on lymph node from abattoir were hemorrhage (11.8%) and necrosis (2.8%). From field cases, all the animals were emaciated with some form of diarrhea. The main lesion was severe lymphoid depletion with histiocytic and macrophage infiltration, shortening of intestinal villi, pneumonia and nephritis. Twenty five percent of the field cases tested positive on PCR and IHC. The PCR amplicon band was approximately 480bp and the sequences generated from the PCR products were at least 98% homologous to 100 sequences submitted on the gene bank though with slight variability among them in nucleotide alignment. From this study, it’s clear that there is knowledge gap on PMWS among farmers and veterinary practitioners in Uganda at present though the virus exists with similar genetic identity as of elsewhere. Further studies like seroprevalence and case-control studies on field cases should be carried out to understand the disease severity on a wider scale so as to institute appropriate control measures.
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    An assessment of livestock technology packaging and dissemination in Rukungiri District
    (Makerere University, 2012) Musinguzi, Simon Peter
    The study was motivated by the fact that despite availability of technologies capable of solving farmers’ constraints adoption of relevant technology has been insufficient to address the constraints. This research set out to examine prospects of livestock technology in enhancing farm productivity, through assessing the livestock technology packaging and dissemination methods. Both qualitative and quantitative methods using PRA techniques and a questionnaire respectively were used. One hundred questionnaires were administered. The study revealed the common livestock species raised in the study area were goats (32%), cattle (39%), pigs (16%) and chicken (6%). Technology adoption emphasized de-worming (37%), acaricide use (22%), pasture improvement (20%) and farm structures (10%). Livestock production was particularly constrained by limited grazing area (52%), livestock diseases (17 %) poor breeds (11%), and lack of dry season feeds (7%). Farmer exchange visits (45%) and trainings (32%) were the most effective technology dissemination approaches. Improved feeds and breeds are hence the key technology needs for livestock. It was noted that whereas there exists relevant technologies that can address farmers’ constraints there is general lack of information about their existence. It was recommended that technology promotion be refocused to address needs particularly lack of improved feeds and breeds. These should be implemented through farmer training, exchange visits supplemented by appropriate radio messages.
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    Assessment of possible sources of endocrine disruptors and microbial pathogens and their impacts in the Lake Victoria Basin in the East African Region.
    ( 2010) Mdegela, R. H. ; Mbuthia, P. G. ; Byarugaba, D. K. ; Mtenga, K. ; Kamundia, P. W.
    This study was conducted from August 2008 to May 2009 in Mwanza (Tanzania), Jinja (Uganda) and Kisumu, Homabay and Suba (Kenya) to establish the sources of pollutants in particular endocrine disruptors and microbial pathogens in water and fish. A sociological study was undertaken using qualitative and quantitative methods. Microbial contamination of water and fish in the lake was assessed in 14 water and 60 fish samples in Mwanza. In Jinja, assessment of microbial contamination was carried out in 100 water and 26 fish samples. A total of 80 Nile tilapia were collected from Kisumu, Homabay and Suba and examined for gross pathological lesions using standard necropsy techniques. Findings from the sociological studies indicated that, the knowledge and awareness on endocrine disruptors in the region is low. Pollutants that find access into the lake and have potential for disrupting the endocrine systems exist in all cities and originate from point and non-point sources. Human, industrial, agricultural, hospital and domestic wastes are the main sources of pollutants likely to contain endocrine disruptors. These pollutants are handled poorly and most of them are disposed off into the lake without treatment. In Mwanza, contamination of water with faecal material at various landing sites was observed in 85.7%, 78.6% and 35.7% of the samples determined using Total Viable Counts, Total Coliform Counts and Total Faecal Coliform Count. All water samples were negative for Salmonella spp, Vibrio spp, Cryptosporidia spp and Giardia spp. In Jinja, microbial contamination was observed in all sampling sites as determined by aerobic plate count (APC), Total Coliform Count (TCC) and Escherichia coli count. There was no significant difference in microbial load between sampling sites (P > 0.05). The gross pathological lesions were generalized hyperemia, liver changes (paleness, grey spots and hemorrhages), cystic urinary bladder, atrophied testis and kidneys, eye opacity, degenerated ovaries, grey patches on the stomach, clear cysts in the testis, deformed dorsal fin and ulcers on the lateral side of the body. Further studies are underway to confirm the likely causes of the observed lesions and the impact of the observed pollutants and microbial pathogens.
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    Assessment of poultry medication practices by farmers and veterinarians before specimen submission to Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratories in Makerere University
    (Makerere University, 2022-03) Obini, Maxmilliam
    In Uganda, the private sector is the major player in the distribution and use of veterinary drugs. This coupled with the laxity among drug regulatory bodies has enabled easy accessibility of veterinary drugs by farmers and other informal prescribers. This has predisposed to a widespread misuse of drugs especially, antibiotics through routine detrimental poly-pharmacy practices with the possible outcome of antimicrobial resistance. This study assessed how veterinary medicines are used in poultry health-care by farmers and veterinarians before specimen submission to veterinary diagnostic laboratories in Makerere University. A total of fifty respondents were enrolled in the study and a semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Ten of the participants were veterinary key informants and forty were individuals (farmers and veterinarians) that submitted samples to CDL and veterinary necropsy laboratory in Makerere University. The results showed that all the 40 respondents who submitted specimen treated their poultry before seeking laboratory diagnostic services to avoid professional veterinary costs or expenses. Sadly, laboratory services were sought as the last resort after a series of failed treatments. Twenty two percent of the field diagnoses by specimen submitters matched the laboratory diagnosis for a given specimen. Furthermore, oxytetracycline was the most frequently (35/133, 26.3%) used drug for treatment of any clinical sign observed by farmers. The farmers often attributed greenish diarrhea to Newcastle disease and bloody diarrhea to Coccidiosis. Despite the existing veterinary drug regulations, farmers often accessed and administered drugs, especially antibiotics without professional prescriptions. Antibiotics were commonly administered by farmers and veterinarians prior to laboratory diagnosis as a single class formulation (46/90, 51.1%) or inform of co- formulation (21/90, 23.3%) and concoctions (23/90, 25.6%). The improper use of antimicrobials coupled with the high level of inaccurate field diagnoses could result in emergence of AMR in poultry farms. Thus, there is a need to enforce existing veterinary drug regulations or policies on access to antimicrobials and as well as educate farmers on the value of laboratory diagnosis to deter them against use of drugs before laboratory diagnosis for the Uganda to prevent AMR in the poultry sector.
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    Biosecurity practices and seroprevalence of African swine fever in Kasawo and Katosi Sub-Counties, Mukono District
    (Makerere University, 2024) Otuba, Geofrey
    African swine fever is one of the major constraints to pig farming causing devastating economic losses for the farmers and wiping out entire pig farms. The majority of the pig farms in Uganda are small-scale and this heavily impacts the livelihood of farmers exacerbating the problem of poverty among the rural poor. African swine fever is endemic in Uganda and frequent outbreaks have been reported all over the country in recent years. The factors responsible for the occurrence of these outbreaks are poorly understood especially at the farm level. This study aims to provide an understanding of the factors responsible for the continued circulation of African swine fever and also give an insight into the extent of the African swine fever challenge. Blood samples were collected from pigs in different pig farms and tested for African swine fever antibodies using competitive ELISA. In addition, to further understand the biosecurity and husbandry practices at the farms, a questionnaire was designed and administered to collect data from the different farms where blood samples were picked. The seroprevalence for African swine fever in both Katosi and Kasawo sub-counties was 0%. 73% of the pig farmers were aware of the existence of African swine fever in pigs. There was a significant difference in African swine fever awareness for pig farmers with farm records (p=0.017) and those who had training in pig husbandry (p=0.025). 70% of the farms had their pigs housed and only 0.7% of the farms were fenced. Only 4% of the pig farms had footbaths. 29% of the farms reported African swine fever outbreaks in the previous twelve months. Pig farmers practices of slaughtering and selling of sick pigs, sharing boars, buying pigs from other farms, among others were the main risk factors for the spread of African swine fever. The majority of farms were grossly lacking in biosecurity implementation at the farm level. Though evidence of chronic African swine fever was not found in pigs, the occurrence of African swine fever remains a big challenge for the pig farmers in Mukono District. Surveillance and the establishment of gazetted abattoirs in Mukono District are crucial for controlling African swine fever in Mukono District.
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    Body vitals, morphometric, haematology and serum biochemistry values of Captive Caracal Aurata (African Golden Cat)
    (Makerere University, 2025) Kia, Martina
    The Caracal aurata (African golden cat) is a species whose conservation status is vulnerable due to habitat loss, habitat fragmentation and poaching activities. This was a cross-sectional study conducted to determine the body vitals, morphometric, haematology and serum biochemistry values of eight adult Caracal aurata housed at the CTC Conservation Center in Butambala District. Body vitals (heart rate, respiratory rate, capillary refill time and rectal temperature) and body measurements, using a tape measure, of eight adult cats were taken and recorded. Blood samples were obtained as well via venipuncture of the cephalic vein after administration of a combination of xylazine and ketamine, after which hematologic and serum biochemistry values were determined. The findings revealed that the body vitals of Caracal aurata are similar to those of domestic cats and lions and tigers with body temperature ranging from 38.1 C to 39.3 C and mean heart rate and mean respiratory rate being 120beats per minute and 10breaths per min respectively. This study also found that Caracal aurata males weighed more than females (mean 9.78kg for males and 7.83kg for females) and generally had higher morphometric measurements as well. Results of the, haematology and serum biochemistry values recorded were generally similar to those recorded for the domestic cat, as well as other wild felids with some values displaying wider or smaller range intervals such as the haemoglobin concentration and Packed Cell Volume. However, some variations were noted, for example, ALT, AST and GGT whose values were higher than those recorded for domestic cats but lower than those recorded for lions and tigers. These species-specific findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge on the biology of the species, and it is the hope of this research that the reported results of this study serve as a foundation for future comparative studies, disease monitoring and informed decision-making in the management and conservation of the African golden cat both in captivity and in the wild.
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    Bovine mastitis on selected farms in Kamwenge District: prevalence and antibiograms of the causative bacteria
    (Makerere university, 2022-10-10) Mbago, Paul
    Bovine mastitis is an inflammation of the parenchyma of mammary glands characterized by physical, chemical, and usually bacteriological changes in milk, and pathological changes in glandular tissues of the udder. It is a costly infectious disease of cattle with worldwide occurrence presenting as either clinical or subclinical mastitis. A cross sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence of bovine mastitis and antibiotic sensitivity profiles of selected mastitogenic bacteria to commonly available antibiotics on market in Kamwenge District. The study was conducted in two Sub counties; Bihanga and Nkoma and two Town councils; Kamwenge and Kahunge, in Kamwenge District. A total of 200 lactating cows were screened for mastitis using California Mastitis Test and physical examination. For cows testing positive for mastitis, we collected samples into sterile tubes for culturing to characterize the causative bacteria and carry out antibiotic sensitivity profiles using Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion technique. Later, a conventional Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out to screen for presence of MecA and TetM genes among the resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates. The prevalence of bovine mastitis in the study area was 74.5% (149/200) of these, 95.3% (142/149) manifested as subclinical mastitis while clinical mastitis accounted for only 4.7% (7/149). Coagulase negative Staphylococci were most prevalent 47.8% (n=44) followed by coliforms 37% (n=34), Staphylococcus aureus (SA) 14.1% (n=13) and Corynebacterium sp. 1.09% (n=1). There was a high level of resistance by Coagulase negative staphylococci to Penicillin 81.8% (n=63) and Tetracycline 59.7% (n=46) but showed marked susceptibility to Gentamicin 74% (n=57) and Cefoxitin 58.4%, (n=45). PCR results for Staphylococcus aureus isolates indicated presence of the MecA gene in three isolates while all were negative for the TetM gene. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, factors significantly associated (p< 0.05) with occurrence of mastitis included herd size, kraal hygiene and milking order. This study indicated that the burden of mastitis and resistance to common antibiotics (penicillin and tetracycline) are a reality among the visited dairy farms in Kamwenge District. This calls for continuous sensitization of farmers about best practices to prevent and control this production related condition.
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    Bovine trypanomiasis in South-Western Uganda: packed-cell volumes and prevalence of infection in the cattle.
    (Animals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 2004) Waiswa, C. ; Katunguka-Rwakishaya, E.
    Following confirmed cases of trypanosomiasis (‘nagana’) and reports of trypanosome-attributable deaths among local cattle, a cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of bovine infection with trypanosomes in south–western Uganda. Cattle from 10 different localities were checked by the microscopical examination of wet bloodsmears and thin, stained bloodsmears, and by blood centrifugation followed by the examination of the resultant buffy coats. Of the 1309 cattle investigated, 6.42% (5.56% and 7.26% of those from the Mbarara and Mubende districts, respectively) were found to be infected. Of the positive animals, 71 (84.5%), 11 (13.1%) and two (2.4%) appeared to be infected with Trypanosoma vivax only, T. congolense only and both T. vivax and T. congolense, respectively. The prevalence of infection with T. vivax was significantly higher than that with T. congolense (P<0.001). The mean packed-cell volumes (PCV) for the trypanosome-positive animals were lower than those for the trypanosome-negative, whether the cattle considered were all those investigated (22.3% v. 29.0%; P<0.001) or just those from the Mbarara (22.8% v. 28.2%) or Mubende (21.5% v. 29.7%) districts. South–western Uganda has been relatively free of both human and bovine trypanosomiasis for the past three decades. The factors leading to the current resurgence of bovine trypanosomiasis need further investigation.
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    Brucellosis at human- domestic animal interface in Greater Bahr El-Ghazal States, South Sudan
    (Makerere University, 2019-04) Yajj, Nuol Aywel Madut
    Backgroung: Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Brucella spp, mainly Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis and Brucella canis. It is endemic in the Mediterranean basin, Middle East countries. In South Sudan, human brucellosis was reported in Terekeka Central Equatorial State in Terekeka health facility. Lack of knowledge about brucellosis may affect the health-seeking behavior of patients, thus leading to sustained infection and transmission in these settings. Aim: To assess brucellosis prevalence among humans and domestic animals in pastoral settings in post conflict and during political instability in Greater Bahr el Ghazal States, South Sudan. Methods: A cross sectional study design was used. The study was divided into substudies, Survey of brucellosis prevalence among animals brought for slaughtering (Sub-study one-Manuscript I), Prevalence of brucellosis among slaughterhouse workers (Sub-study Two-Manuscript II), prevalence of brucellosis among cattle and herders in the cattle caomps (Sub-study Three-Article I), Epidemiology of zoonotic Brucellosis in Greater Bahr el Ghazal states, South Sudan was conducted (Sub-study IV-Manuscript III). Prevalence of brucellosis among patients attending Out-patients department of Wau referral hospital (Sub-study IV-Article II). Data was collected using standardized questionnaires. Data analysis was done using SPSS version 24 and Stata 12 software. The level of significance of 95% was used during the analysis. Results: Slaughterhouses were poorly managed and lack basic infrastructures. Seroprevalence of Brucellosis was high among abattoir workers, especially in Wau State. The prevalence of brucellosis in Greater Bahr el Ghazal State is higher than that reported in other parts of Africa.Control of the disease in animals, by annual surveillance, a dministering vaccination, and culling of brucella positive animals. One xv health programme should be implemented in the region to mitigate the disease by disseminating public a wareness advocacy and surveillance programmes. Conclusion: Lack of control measures for the disease, lack of awareness about brucellosis and other zoonotic diseases. Brucellosis is common among febrile patients attending (OPD) in Wau hospital. Our study showed that consumption of infected animal products such as raw milk, meat and urine play major role in transmission of Brucellosis in the communities. Brucellosis infection is associated with factors like age, herd size, lactation, health status, hygroma and history of abortion. There is need for mandatory routine testing for Brucellosis among herders and other high risk groups. Control will be best accomplished at the animal level since people have a social and cultural tendency to consume raw animal products.
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    A burgeoning epidemic of sleeping sickness in Uganda
    (Lancet, 2005-08-27) Fevre, E. M. ; Picozzi, K. ; Fyfe, J. ; Waiswa, C. ; Modiit, M. ; Coleman, P. G. ; Welburn, S. C.
    The epidemic of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense sleeping sickness in eastern Uganda, which began in 1998 as a result of movements of the livestock reservoir of the parasite, has continued to spread. An additional 133 000 people have been put at risk of infection in Kaberamaido, another newly affected district. The few resources committed to control interventions in Soroti district have failed to contain the epidemic. The high prevalence of the parasite in cattle presents a significant risk for transmission to human beings and further spread of this neglected zoonotic disease. Targeted interventions are urgently needed to control epidemics and reduce the high mortality resulting from sleeping sickness.
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    Caprine ovarian and uterine lesions: An abattoir survey
    (Makerere University, 2009-08) Mutebi, Francis
    Goat rearing is popular among Ugandan farmers especially the small scale farm holders. However, very limited information is available on the defects of the female reproductive organs despite their significance in guiding selection, breeding and strategic control programmes for various disease conditions which are ultimately aimed at increasing enterprise profitability. In order to bridge this gap, a study was carried out from Uganda Meat Industries (UMI) and Kampala City Council (KCC) abattoirs to establish the nature and prevalence of such defects. A total of 1000 female goats were randomly sampled for a period of seven months for gross genital defects. Gross genital defects-bearing tracts were sampled for histopathology on all the segments of the system. Gross genital defects had an overall prevalence of 20.9%, but those that can result into infertility or sterility were detected in 13.6% of the examined goats. The uterus exhibited the highest prevalence of lesions (14.6%) followed by the ovary (8.6%). Oviducts and the cervix had rates of lesions of 4.5% and 2.6%, respectively. Cervical lesions included cervicitis (1.4%), haemorrhages (0.3%) and adenomyosis (0.9%). Major uterine lesions included: metritis and endometritis (6.3%), adenomyosis (5.4%), intra-uterine foetal deaths (1.9%), haemorrhages (3.0%), hydrometra (0.5%) and pyometra (0.4%). Others were cystic endometrial hyperplasia (0.2%), perimetritis (0.3%), serosal cysts (0.2%), unilateral caruncular necrosis (0.2%) and melanosis (0.1%). Salphingeal lesions included salphingitis (3.7%) and hydrosalphinx (0.8%). Detected ovarian lesions included mainly tubo-ovarian–bursal adhesions (3.7%), paraovarian cysts (2.2%), cystic corpora lutea (2.2%), cystic graffian follicles (1.1%) and granulosa-thecal cell tumour (0.1%). Others were ovarian quiescence (0.4%) and Cysticercus tenuicolis cyst (0.1%). Overall, majority of the lesions were infectious in nature and their prevalence increased with age. Foetal wastage had a prevalence of 38.4%. This study implicated infections and foetal deaths as the major causes of genital lesions and revealed a higher prevalence of adenomyosis among goats than that reported in literature. Regular herd health investigations should be carried out to determine the extent and nature of the causes of infertility so as to appropriately advice the farmers.