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ItemEpidemiology of ticks and tick-borne protozoan and rickettsial infections of cattle in Karamoja region, Uganda(Makerere University, 2025)Livestock production is the main source of social and economic livelihoods for communities in Karamoja region. However, tick-borne Protozoan and Rickettsia infections pose a major threat to livestock production and lead to significant economic losses, which impact the livelihoods and the social setup of the Karimojong. To improve livestock production, efforts to address animal health are required; therefore, vector and parasite control is of vital significance. Standardised vector and parasite surveys are essential in providing up-to-date data to guide in the formulation and implementation of these programmes. To this end, a cross-sectional survey was undertaken to determine the prevalence, distribution and diversity of the major tick-borne haemoparasites / pathogens (TBH) infecting cattle, and the tick species infesting cattle in the Karamoja region as well as to understand the knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices of the Karimojong towards ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBD). This study involved the collection of ticks and blood samples from 3,540 cattle drawn from a total of 59 villages in the wet and dry seasons in six districts of Karamoja. In addition to the tick and blood surveys was a qualitative survey to understand the perceptions of the pastoralist towards TTBD. The pastoral communities perceived tick-borne diseases, especially anaplasmosis and ECF, as among the most important diseases, based on the case fatality rates, morbidity and costs of treatment. Livestock production was perceived as the most important contributor to household income, and livestock disease and their vectors were considered the single most important constraint to livestock production. The preventive practices perceived to be most effective against ticks and TBD were acaricide application and curative treatment, respectively. Other control practices, including bush burning, handpicking, pricking ticks and vaccination, were said not to be so effective by the respondents in all the study areas. The key constraints to the control of TTBD were shortage of money to buy veterinary inputs, unavailability of veterinary services, drugs and inputs, inadequate knowledge of the pastoralist in disease diagnosis/treatment and insecurity. The cost of the preventive practice and a high case fatality /morbidity rate of the disease were ranked as the most significant influencers for undertaking the prevention and or control of TBD. A total of 15 tick species from three genera (10 Rhipicephalus; three Amblyomma; two Hyalomma species) were identified. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was the most dominant (37.9%) tick species, followed by Amblyomma variegatum (32.3%); A. lepidum (17.3%); R. evertsi evertsi (7.8%); and R. (Boophilus) decoloratus (1.4%). The distribution of the tick species was not uniform across the study districts. The proportion of tick-infested cattle was similar in the wet and dry season (χ2 = 0.5077, n = 1385/1534, p = 0.476). Cattle were predominantly infested by five tick species, namely A. variegatum (55%), R. appendiculatus (53%), A. lepidum (41%), R. evertsi (22%), and R. (Boophilus) decoloratus (8%). In total, 46 R. (Boophilus) microplus ticks were found infesting cattle in five study sites in the districts of Amudat, Kaabong and Napak. Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus co-existed with R. (Boophilus) microplus however R. (Boophilus) decoloratus was the most dominant (76.1%; n=179) of the three Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) tick species recorded in the region. At least 39.2% (95% CI: 37.6-40.9; n=1,387/3,540) and 39.0% (CI: 37.3-40.6; n=1,380/3,540) of the screened cattle were positive for at least one of the screened TBH in the dry and wet seasons, respectively, a difference that was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The overall prevalence of infection with the individual TBH in the dry season in descending order was: - B. bigemina 11.8% (CI: 10.8-12.9), B. bovis 11.8% (CI: 10.8-12.9), A. marginale 9.2% (CI: 8.2-10.2), E. ruminantium 5.1% (CI: 4.4-5.8) and T. parva 1.3% (CI: 1.0-1.8). In the rain season, the prevalence of different TBH was: - T. parva 22.6% (CI: 21.3–24), A. marginale 13.6% (CI: 12.5–14.8), B. bigemina 12.7% (CI: 11.6–13.8), E. ruminantium 1.4% (CI: 1.1–1.9) and B. bovis 0.3% (CI: 0.1–0.5). Geospatial location, increasing age, sex, overnight stay in cattle kraals and cattle breeds were significant predictors for testing positive for at least one of the TBH during the survey. Mixed infections with B. bovis and B. bigemina (2.74%; CI: 2.23–3.33) were more encountered while mixed infections with E. ruminantium and T. parva (0.14%; CI: 0.05–0.33) were the least encountered during the dry season. On the other hand, mixed infections with A. marginale and E. ruminantium (1.64%; CI: 1.25–2.11) were more encountered while mixed infections with B. bovis and E. ruminantium (0%; CI: 0–0.1) were the least encountered during the wet season. The sequences of TBH clustered closely within the individual species indicative of a high degree of similarity. The MSP4 gene sequences of A. marginale were grouped into two clusters with other published sequences with limited branching in the tree, and showed minimal nucleotide variation with other published sequences. These findings highlight limited regional divergence, likely shaped by ecological similarities or shared vector species. The p104 gene sequences of T parva were grouped into four clusters, illustrating the diversity of isolates from different regions. Four sequences from this study clustered closely together, forming a distinct subgroup within Clade 4 alongside previously published sequences and exhibited minimal pairwise nucleotide differences. The rap-1a gene sequences of B. bigemina were grouped into two clusters. The isolates clustered closely with published sequences from cattle in Uganda, Tanzania and India exhibiting zero nucleotide differences. The sbp2 gene sequences of B. bovis clustered into one highly conserved group. The isolates were identical to the Chinese B. bovis T2Bo strain (XM_001610444.2), indicating no nucleotide differences and suggesting a shared origin of infection. Minimal variation of 2–6 nucleotide differences was observed among the isolates. Haplotype diversity analysis of the msp4 gene across 24 sequences including those from this study and those in the GenBank showed a high haplotype diversity (h = 0.859 ± 0.066) and moderate nucleotide diversity (π = 0.0047 ± 0.00074). For the p104 gene, seven haplotypes were identified, demonstrating considerable nucleotide diversity among the isolates. Haplotype diversity analysis of the rap-1a gene across 38 sequences, including those from this study and GenBank, revealed low haplotype diversity (h = 0.401 ± 0.091) and nucleotide diversity (π = 0.00197 ± 0.00049). Interestingly, sbp2 exhibited substantial global diversity, with nine unique haplotypes reported. The findings from this study provide knowledge on the perceptions, vector quantitative indices and epidemiology of TTBD, which can be used in animal health advocacy, design and implementation of control strategies, and to support diagnosis. More effort should be placed in the control of TTBD in the region. There is a need to sensitize livestock farmers on the epidemiology of TTBD and improve on the regulation of livestock movement.
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ItemKnowledge, attitudes and practices of poultry farmers in Wakiso District towards black soldier fly larvae farming(Makerere University, 2025)In Uganda, the poultry sector is facing mounting challenges due to the high costs and limited availability of conventional protein ingredients such as fishmeal. Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae (Hermetia illucens), with their high crude protein content, have been identified as a viable alternative protein source for poultry feed. This study sought to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) of poultry farmers towards BSF larvae farming, constraints and factors limiting BSF farming in Wakiso District. Using a cross-sectional survey design, data was collected from 80 poultry farmers using a pre- tested semi-structured questionnaire. Data were analyzed for descriptive statistics, Spearman rank correlation to assess relationships among KAP variables and demographic/institutional factors. Results revealed that 58.8% of the respondents demonstrated a high level of knowledge about BSF farming, including aspects about BSF appearance, feeding behavior, and the nutritional benefits of larvae in poultry diets. Higher education levels and larger farm sizes were significantly associated with greater knowledge. 47.5% of respondents exhibited a positive attitude toward BSF farming. Male farmers and those with lower education levels showed more favorable attitudes. 51% of the farmers reported frequently applying good BSF farming techniques, including waste management through larvae rearing and the use of BSFL in poultry feed. Despite high knowledge levels, correlations between knowledge, attitudes, and practices were found to be weak or insignificant. This suggests that knowledge alone is insufficient to change behavior without addressing broader contextual and structural challenges. Farmers faced challenges, including a lack of a stable market for BSF products, insufficient feed, negative public perceptions of insect farming, a shortage of start-up capital, inadequate rearing materials, and poor storage facilities. Others included lack of institutional support, limited access to credit, and absence of government policy. Policy frameworks, access to affordable credit, market development, and practical training programs will be essential to scaling BSF as a sustainable protein source in Uganda’s poultry industry. The study recommends that government agencies prioritize awareness campaigns, capacity building, and the creation of an enabling environment for BSF farming. Keywords: Poultry farmers, Fly larvae farming
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ItemAssessment of the efficiency of problematic animal interventions in mitigating human wildlife conflicts in Uganda: a case study of Lake Mburo National Park(Makerere University, 2025)The main objective of this study was to assess the efficiency of interventions targeting problematic species in mitigating Human-Wildlife Conflicts (HWCs) in Uganda, with a focus on Lake Mburo National Park (LMNP), conducted in 6 (six) parishes surrounding LMNP. The study employed a survey method with semi-structured questionnaires, key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) to assess the nature of human-wildlife conflicts, the socio-economic impact of the HWCs, the communities coping strategies, and the efficiency of the interventions in place. Crop raids, livestock injury and death, property destruction, and competition for resources were the main conflicts identified, primarily involving species such as hippos, buffaloes, zebras, baboons, waterbucks, leopards, hyenas, bushbucks, wild pigs, and warthogs. Community coping strategies included guarding crops and livestock, fencing around their gardens and grazing farms, scare tactics (e.g., scarecrows, torches, drumming, campfires), and reliance on Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) for management. UWA manages HWCs with direct interventions and strategies that promote tolerance for wildlife on community land. Direct interventions include scaring with gunshots, use of trenches for non-jumping animals like hippos, buffaloes, wild pigs and warthogs, and use of strong enclosures and fencing. The results highlight that hippos (76%), zebras (68%), and buffaloes (54%) are the most problematic species around Lake Mburo National Park, with crop raiding, livestock injury/loss, human injury/loss, and destruction of property being the most frequent forms of human-wildlife conflicts which significantly impacts local livelihoods. The study reveals that guarding property (98%) is the most effective and commonly used intervention, though stressful and time-consuming. Other measures, such as strong shelters, trapping, translocation, and various deterrents, show varying degrees of effectiveness depending on the species involved. The study concluded that understanding the species-specific and context-specific effectiveness of these interventions is crucial for developing sustainable strategies to mitigate HWC. The insights gained from this research can inform future conflict mitigation strategies and contribute to the broader discourse on human-wildlife coexistence in Uganda and similar settings worldwide. Keywords: Animal interventions, Mitigating human wildlife, Lake Mburo National Park
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ItemRoaming dogs in Uganda : Dog ownership practices, public health implications, community attitudes and control strategies in selected urban and rural settings(Makerere University, 2025)Roaming dogs are ubiquitous in Ugandan communities, causing bites, nuisance, road accidents, and transmitting diseases. The lack of comprehensive research on roaming dogs hinders evidence-based intervention strategies. This study, using a mixed-methods design, aimed to generate baseline data to inform control strategies for roaming dogs in Uganda. Two cross-sectional surveys were conducted: one with 1,006 dog owners to assess ownership practices contributing to roaming, and another with 3,307 community members to evaluate attitudes toward roaming dogs. A case series documented bite incidents involving roaming dogs. Metagenomic sequencing of blood samples from roaming dogs, stratified by levels of wildlife contact, was performed to identify circulating viruses. Lastly, a quasi-experimental assessment of annual sterilization campaigns in Wakiso District evaluated community uptake and population-level effects. From this study, 65.2% of owned dogs were found to roam freely. The significant factors associated with roaming were dog owners having no perimeter fence to confine their dogs (P=0.001) and living in rural areas (P=0.03), where people live communally and prefer live fences to perimeter fencing. Once roaming, dogs were largely perceived negatively by 90.8% of rural and 77.3% of urban residents. The main reasons for the negativity were fear of dog bites and disease transmission (81.8%), and nuisance (76.3%). Notably, 57.1% of the respondents expressed empathy toward roaming dogs. Positive attitudes were more common among individuals from religious or higher socioeconomic backgrounds. Metagenomic analysis of blood samples from roaming dogs identified 46 novel viruses. Viral prevalence, richness, and abundance were significantly higher in dogs that hunted or fed on wildlife (p < 0.001). Detected viruses belonged primarily to the genera Orbivirus (family Sedoreoviridae), Protoparvovirus (family Parvoviridae), and Anelloviruses. Case investigations revealed that dog–human conflicts arose mainly from rabid dog rampages, predatory attacks on livestock, and direct human confrontations. Most bites, 100% to humans and 75% to animals, occurred during rampages; notably, one rabid dog was responsible for 37 bite incidents, the highest number ever reported globally. Over three years, 204 sterilization surgeries were conducted, with community participation increasing from 28% in the first year to 60% in the third. This intervention corresponded with a decline in roaming dog prevalence from 34.8% to 18.3%. Overall, the findings demonstrate that roaming dogs pose a significant risk of bite injuries, particularly during rabies outbreaks. Moreover, dogs interacting with wildlife may facilitate bidirectional viral transmission of diseases of public health importance. Controlling roaming dogs seems feasible through sustained sterilization programs, as demonstrated by the observed population decline and rising community uptake. For enduring success, however, these efforts must be scaled nationally and integrated with multifaceted strategies: (i) community education to foster responsible ownership and curb abandonment; (ii) revision of the outdated Stray Animals Act of 1922; (iii) enactment of modern policies on dog breeding, registration, and confinement; and (iv) robust enforcement mechanisms. This holistic, multisectoral approach is essential to eliminate roaming dogs, mitigate zoonotic risks, and advance public health and animal welfare in Uganda.
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ItemBurden and spatial distribution of ticks among cattle grazing along the buffer zone of Lake Nakuwa in Kaliro District(Makerere University, 2025)A cross-sectional study was done to determine tick infestation levels and factors responsible for maintaining high infestations among cattle grazing along the buffer zones of Lake Nakuwa, in Kaliro district. Due to the lack of individual farmer owned grazing land, extensive communal grazing of cattle is practiced along buffer zones of Lake Nakuwa. This study was done in 8 villages from 4 sub-counties. Half body count of ticks infesting cattle was done. The factors responsible for maintaining high tick infestations were determined using participatory methods (Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant interviews) and administration of a questionnaire to 200 farmers. Mean tick infestation levels were found to be 21.6±3.7 ticks per head of cattle of which 38.8% were Ambylomma variegatum, 33.7% Rhipicephalus decoloratus; 20.1% Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and 7.4% Rhipicephalus eversti eversti. There was a highly significant difference in the abundance of tick species (F=65,6; df 3,21; P=0.0000). There was no significant difference of tick abundance across villages (F=2.45; df 4,21; P=0.08). Anaplasmosis, babesiosis, heartwater and East Coast Fever were the major Tick-Borne Diseases (TBDs) in the descending order as reported by farmers. The risk factors promoting high tick infestations were: no organized tick control practices in the area, farmers’ lack of knowledge and awareness about tick species, biology, population dynamics and tick control methods; and communal open mobile grazing of cattle. It was recommended that education and sensitization of farmers about the dangers of tick species that infest their cattle should be done. This should be coupled with transfer of appropriate sustainable communal tick control practices to cattle farmers. Further studies should be done to determine the prevalence of TBDs among cattle by carrying out specific polymerase reaction chain tests. Also, the economic costs caused by ticks and TBDs on cattle should be determined to assess the urgency needed to control them among cattle grazing along buffer zone of Lake Nakuwa.