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ItemCharacterisation of Artisanal yoghurt "Amakamo" production in Kiruhura District, Western Uganda(Makerere University, 2025)Fermented dairy products are increasingly demanded for their distinctive flavours, textures, health benefits and cultural significance. In Uganda “Amakamo” is a culturally valued fermented milk product in Western Uganda, yet its production practices and plant-based starter cultures remain poorly documented. This study aimed to characterise artisanal yoghurt (“Amakamo”) production in Kiruhura District by assessing the ingredients, equipment, fermentation processes, and hygiene conditions used; identifying plants traditionally selected as starter cultures; and determining the presence of Lactobacillus species in these plant starters and the fermented milk they produce. A cross-sectional mixed-methods study was conducted in February 2025. Data were collected from 158 respondents using semi-structured questionnaires, complemented by key informant interviews to capture indigenous fermentation knowledge. Laboratory analysis was performed on commonly used plant starters and fermented milk samples. A total of 13 plant species were identified as traditional starter cultures. Laboratory screening revealed that all selected plants contained lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Fermented milk produced with these plants showed significantly higher Lactobacillus counts (8.2 × 10⁷–2.7 × 10⁸ CFU/mL), confirming their strong fermentation potential. The study validates local knowledge by demonstrating that plant-derived starters effectively drive yoghurt fermentation. These findings provide a basis for improving artisanal yoghurt quality, safety, and probiotic value in Uganda.
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ItemAssessment of perceptions on milk safety and milk hygiene at dairy farms and milk collection centers in sembabule, uganda(Makerere University, 2025)The dairy sub sector plays a significant role in economic development and livelihoods in Uganda. Whereas milk production is observed to increase, farmers continue to register losses mainly related to milk hygiene practices. As part of the solution, this study aimed at assessing perceptions on milk safety and milk hygiene at farmers’ level and persons working at milk collection centers in Lugusulu sub-county, Sembabule District, Uganda. All aimed at identifying the predisposing factors for poor milk hygiene and contamination. A cross sectional study was conducted across 160 dairy farms and 17 milk collection centres (MCCs). Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires and observational check lists. Majority of the respondents were males (69.4% at dairy farms, 94.1% at MCCs), only 35% of dairy farmers and 88.2% of managers had attained formal education. Farmers and milk collection center managers had positive perceptions on milk safety, milk hygiene levels were poor with physical contamination higher at dairy farms than MCCs; major physical contaminants at both sites were hairs and insects. Limited training and low levels of knowledge were the most predisposing factors especially at farm level, it was found that training and knowledge influenced many other such as; hygiene behaviors and infrastructure therefore I recommend trainings on milk safety to improve on behavioral hygiene and infrastructure to reduce both physical and non-physical contamination which would be critical in improving overall milk quality and safety.
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ItemEpidemiology of leptospira species among slaughterhouse workers and slaughtered cattle in the Bahr El Ghazal Region, South Sudan(Makerere University, 2025)Leptospirosis, a neglected zoonotic disease caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp., poses significant public health risks, particularly to high-risk occupational groups such as slaughterhouse workers. Despite previous research on animal seroprevalence in South Sudan, data on human exposure using the gold-standard microscopic agglutination test (MAT) has been lacking. This doctoral study investigated the epidemiology of Leptospira spp. among slaughterhouse workers and slaughtered cattle in South Sudan’s Bahr El Ghazal Region using a cross-sectional design between February 27 and March 30, 2023. Blood samples from slaughterhouse workers (n = 250) and cattle (n = 402) were tested using MAT with a panel of 12 Leptospiral serogroups, including those previously reported in livestock in South Sudan and the East African Region. Urine samples from cattle (n = 400) were analyzed via real-time quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR). MAT results showed a 6.4% seropositivity among workers and 81.8% in cattle, with Leptospira serovars Tarassovi and Australis predominating in humans, while serovars, Tarassovi and Kenya in cattle. The prevalence of urinary Leptospira shedding in cattle was 6.0% by PCR. Probable recent infections (MAT titer ≥800) were detected in 0.8% of workers and 33.1% of cattle. Key occupational risk factors among workers included flaying, wearing an apron/overall, and handling a higher number of animals per day. In cattle, older age, female sex, and exotic breed were associated with higher seropositivity. Genotypic characterization using Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) was challenged by low Leptospira-specific DNA concentrations. Bayesian modeling estimated the true prevalence at 10% in workers and 85% in cattle, with a 78% likelihood of infection occurring within slaughterhouses. These findings underscore the endemic nature of leptospirosis in the region and its significant unrecognized occupational risks. Given the risk of human exposure, acute and chronic leptospiral infections in humans and cattle, enhanced research and surveillance are essential to guide effective control. Strengthening diagnostic capabilities and implementing preventive measures will help mitigate future outbreaks, enhance public health outcomes, and improve productivity in South Sudan. Keywords: Leptospirosis, Leptospira species, Slaughterhouse
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ItemAssessment of factors associated with access and adoption of artificial insemination among selected farmers in Central Uganda(Makerere University, 2025)The increasing human population is associated with more demand for animal proteins across the globe. Dairy cattle farming is a major source of protein-rich milk and milk products. To match the growing need, improved genetic breeds such as the Holstein Friesian, Ayrshire, Guernsey, and Jersey have been selected. Efforts have been made to spread these breeds all over the world through technologies like the artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer (ET). Such advanced reproductive technologies and breeds have made it possible to optimize milk production in several countries. However, the adoption of those technologies and breeds in developing countries remains challenging. This study assessed the common breeding methods used and the factors that hinder the access to and adoption of genetic breeds of dairy cattle among selected dairy farmers within the districts of Kampala, Mukono, Wakiso, Buikwe and Luwero in Central Uganda. A cross sectional study was conducted by questionnaires and interviews to dairy farmers in the selected districts of central Uganda. Fifty-nine dairy farmers purposely selected from within the Dairy Farmers’ Network (DAFAN) cluster in Central Uganda districts of Kampala, Wakiso, Mukono, Luwero, and Buikwe participated in the study. In this study, the adoption of breeding methods by the farmers in the DAFAN cluster shows that 61% use Artificial Insemination (AI), 31% prefer natural mating, while 8% employ both methods. High cost and lack of technical support were report to be the major factors that limit full adoption of artificial breeding technologies. Other factors influencing AI adoption, including education level, farming experience, herd size, and cattle breed preferences. The findings suggest that enhancing farmer education and providing affordable AI services could significantly improve access to elite dairy genetics to the farmers. This being a pilot study limited in scope, It is recommended that a larger study and farmer sensitization to enhance access to superior dairy genetics in Uganda be done.
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ItemEpidemiology of ticks and tick-borne protozoan and rickettsial infections of cattle in Karamoja region, Uganda(Makerere University, 2025)Livestock production is the main source of social and economic livelihoods for communities in Karamoja region. However, tick-borne Protozoan and Rickettsia infections pose a major threat to livestock production and lead to significant economic losses, which impact the livelihoods and the social setup of the Karimojong. To improve livestock production, efforts to address animal health are required; therefore, vector and parasite control is of vital significance. Standardised vector and parasite surveys are essential in providing up-to-date data to guide in the formulation and implementation of these programmes. To this end, a cross-sectional survey was undertaken to determine the prevalence, distribution and diversity of the major tick-borne haemoparasites / pathogens (TBH) infecting cattle, and the tick species infesting cattle in the Karamoja region as well as to understand the knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices of the Karimojong towards ticks and tick-borne diseases (TTBD). This study involved the collection of ticks and blood samples from 3,540 cattle drawn from a total of 59 villages in the wet and dry seasons in six districts of Karamoja. In addition to the tick and blood surveys was a qualitative survey to understand the perceptions of the pastoralist towards TTBD. The pastoral communities perceived tick-borne diseases, especially anaplasmosis and ECF, as among the most important diseases, based on the case fatality rates, morbidity and costs of treatment. Livestock production was perceived as the most important contributor to household income, and livestock disease and their vectors were considered the single most important constraint to livestock production. The preventive practices perceived to be most effective against ticks and TBD were acaricide application and curative treatment, respectively. Other control practices, including bush burning, handpicking, pricking ticks and vaccination, were said not to be so effective by the respondents in all the study areas. The key constraints to the control of TTBD were shortage of money to buy veterinary inputs, unavailability of veterinary services, drugs and inputs, inadequate knowledge of the pastoralist in disease diagnosis/treatment and insecurity. The cost of the preventive practice and a high case fatality /morbidity rate of the disease were ranked as the most significant influencers for undertaking the prevention and or control of TBD. A total of 15 tick species from three genera (10 Rhipicephalus; three Amblyomma; two Hyalomma species) were identified. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was the most dominant (37.9%) tick species, followed by Amblyomma variegatum (32.3%); A. lepidum (17.3%); R. evertsi evertsi (7.8%); and R. (Boophilus) decoloratus (1.4%). The distribution of the tick species was not uniform across the study districts. The proportion of tick-infested cattle was similar in the wet and dry season (χ2 = 0.5077, n = 1385/1534, p = 0.476). Cattle were predominantly infested by five tick species, namely A. variegatum (55%), R. appendiculatus (53%), A. lepidum (41%), R. evertsi (22%), and R. (Boophilus) decoloratus (8%). In total, 46 R. (Boophilus) microplus ticks were found infesting cattle in five study sites in the districts of Amudat, Kaabong and Napak. Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) decoloratus co-existed with R. (Boophilus) microplus however R. (Boophilus) decoloratus was the most dominant (76.1%; n=179) of the three Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) tick species recorded in the region. At least 39.2% (95% CI: 37.6-40.9; n=1,387/3,540) and 39.0% (CI: 37.3-40.6; n=1,380/3,540) of the screened cattle were positive for at least one of the screened TBH in the dry and wet seasons, respectively, a difference that was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The overall prevalence of infection with the individual TBH in the dry season in descending order was: - B. bigemina 11.8% (CI: 10.8-12.9), B. bovis 11.8% (CI: 10.8-12.9), A. marginale 9.2% (CI: 8.2-10.2), E. ruminantium 5.1% (CI: 4.4-5.8) and T. parva 1.3% (CI: 1.0-1.8). In the rain season, the prevalence of different TBH was: - T. parva 22.6% (CI: 21.3–24), A. marginale 13.6% (CI: 12.5–14.8), B. bigemina 12.7% (CI: 11.6–13.8), E. ruminantium 1.4% (CI: 1.1–1.9) and B. bovis 0.3% (CI: 0.1–0.5). Geospatial location, increasing age, sex, overnight stay in cattle kraals and cattle breeds were significant predictors for testing positive for at least one of the TBH during the survey. Mixed infections with B. bovis and B. bigemina (2.74%; CI: 2.23–3.33) were more encountered while mixed infections with E. ruminantium and T. parva (0.14%; CI: 0.05–0.33) were the least encountered during the dry season. On the other hand, mixed infections with A. marginale and E. ruminantium (1.64%; CI: 1.25–2.11) were more encountered while mixed infections with B. bovis and E. ruminantium (0%; CI: 0–0.1) were the least encountered during the wet season. The sequences of TBH clustered closely within the individual species indicative of a high degree of similarity. The MSP4 gene sequences of A. marginale were grouped into two clusters with other published sequences with limited branching in the tree, and showed minimal nucleotide variation with other published sequences. These findings highlight limited regional divergence, likely shaped by ecological similarities or shared vector species. The p104 gene sequences of T parva were grouped into four clusters, illustrating the diversity of isolates from different regions. Four sequences from this study clustered closely together, forming a distinct subgroup within Clade 4 alongside previously published sequences and exhibited minimal pairwise nucleotide differences. The rap-1a gene sequences of B. bigemina were grouped into two clusters. The isolates clustered closely with published sequences from cattle in Uganda, Tanzania and India exhibiting zero nucleotide differences. The sbp2 gene sequences of B. bovis clustered into one highly conserved group. The isolates were identical to the Chinese B. bovis T2Bo strain (XM_001610444.2), indicating no nucleotide differences and suggesting a shared origin of infection. Minimal variation of 2–6 nucleotide differences was observed among the isolates. Haplotype diversity analysis of the msp4 gene across 24 sequences including those from this study and those in the GenBank showed a high haplotype diversity (h = 0.859 ± 0.066) and moderate nucleotide diversity (π = 0.0047 ± 0.00074). For the p104 gene, seven haplotypes were identified, demonstrating considerable nucleotide diversity among the isolates. Haplotype diversity analysis of the rap-1a gene across 38 sequences, including those from this study and GenBank, revealed low haplotype diversity (h = 0.401 ± 0.091) and nucleotide diversity (π = 0.00197 ± 0.00049). Interestingly, sbp2 exhibited substantial global diversity, with nine unique haplotypes reported. The findings from this study provide knowledge on the perceptions, vector quantitative indices and epidemiology of TTBD, which can be used in animal health advocacy, design and implementation of control strategies, and to support diagnosis. More effort should be placed in the control of TTBD in the region. There is a need to sensitize livestock farmers on the epidemiology of TTBD and improve on the regulation of livestock movement.