School of Women and Gender Studies (SWGS) Collections

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Implication of ICT use on gender division of labour and decision making in agricultural production

(Makerere University, 2008-10) Mugambe, Mpiima David

This study aimed at examining the implications of the use of Information Communication Technology (lCT) on the gender division of labour and decision-making in agricultural production at households level. The study focused on the changes that occur in gender division of labour and decision-making when male and female fanners use ICT. This study used theoretical explanations on how the use of new technology can bring about change in labour allocation between women in different ways from those of men, and how decisions can be undertaken on utilizing the skills and knowledge gained. Furthermore, gender division of labour and decision-making were used as the key concepts and how these detennined the position of either males or females. As such, lCT was considered as a technological resource that could enable women and men to use skills and knowledge gained in order to make a change in division of labour in agriculture and how females can influence decisions or males who have learnt new techniques. The study also took into consideration the influence of culture, location, available resources, religion and familial structure on the changing labour allocation for women and how this can be different from that of men. The research for this study was carried out in Nakaseke district, in central Uganda. A total of eighty nine (89) primary respondents were selected from Mifunya and Kigege parishes in Nakaseke Sub County using the using systematic random sampling with a random start. Four key respondents were interviewed as well as four Focus group discussions. The methodology used was both comparative and involved both ICT users and non-ICT users employing both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection. The key research tools used were the interview schedule; Key informant guide, Focus group discussion guide and these were strengthened by the review of existing literature. These were designed to answer the main research questions i.e. the ICT services men and women choose to access, the ICT services men and women choose to adopt, how ICT changes or retains work done by men and women, how the use of lCT has changed the participation of men and women in agriculture, who decides on the acquisition of agricultural resources and how responsibilities are allocated between men and women. The findings indicate that in many aspects of agricultural production, fanners who were using ICT services experienced a change in both gender division of labour, gender division of crops and technology as well as changes in decision in comparison to the ,non-users. There were cases where authoritarian decision-making turned into joint decision-making as a result of the accompanying training that is run at the telecentre. Women could also sell their crops directly to the market or the middlemen especially after learning of the prices fusing the pricelists. Though in some areas men were dominant, women were reported to be highly empowered by the use of especially the internet. The study clearly showed that there is a strong case for change and visibly, more women as well as men changed the technology they were using, gender division of labour was altered not only in the nature of activities engaged in by men and women, but also the crops that women and men were now involved in. In conclusion therefore, the use of ICT greatly led to changes in gender division of labour and decision making as both men and women acquired and used various skills from the telecentre and this precipitated changes in the way crops were planted, chose to adopt new skills and both men and women clearly got involved in activities previously engaged in by the other sex. For instance, women got into marketing and men using ICT were also more involved in various agricultural production processes.
"Him and Her" gender diferentials in ICT uptake: A critical literature review and research agenda

(University of the West Indies, 2009) Nsibirano, Ruth

Observed gender differences in the use of Information Communication Technology (ICT) constitute a form of digital divide. Differences between male and female ICT users are of increasing interest world wide as the digital divide evolves. This gendered digital divide is more prominent in the developing world and Africa provides a very obvious illustration. The result is an inequitable distribution of benefits that come with the use of ICT. The objective of this paper is to review literature on the gendered digital divide. This paper draws on arguments advanced in feminist standpoint theory and gender symbolism to consider how gender symbolism contributes to a better understanding of differences in ICT use in University education. This includes how understandings and experiences of ICT, influence the decision to use / not use ICT
Liberalisation of agricultural markets, livelihood patterns and gender relations in Central Uganda: The case of Ntenjeru Sub County, Mukono District

(Makerere University, 2009-05) Manyire, Henry

This thesis examines the influence of the policy of liberalisation of agricultural markets on livelihood patterns and gender relations. The thesis adopts the actor/structure theoretical framework in making comparison and analysis of first, the agricultural and non agricultural livelihoods pursued jointly or individually within 60 smallholder farming households in Ntenjeru Sub County, situated in Mukono district in Central Uganda and second, the forms of gender relations experienced before and since implementation of the policy of liberalisation of agricultural markets within these households. The study demonstrates the strengths and limitations of structure and actor approaches in explaining smallholders’ responses to public policy. Rather than relying on one approach as the current neo liberal and Weberian theorists are separately inclined to do, this study justifies the need to combine both approaches by borrowing from the strengths of each approach and improving on the limitations of each approach especially in policy formulation. The policy of liberalisation of agricultural markets produced its anticipated structural changes in form of increased access to markets, increased monetisation of the economy, heightened agricultural production for the market and livelihood diversification. The policy is however not sufficient enough on its own to elicit anticipated responses amongst smallholder farming households. The majority of the smallholder farming households has limited capital and labour resources while more even lack the agency requisite for producing for the market, which is rarely considered by policy makers. Targeted assistance from government and raising consciousness which in turn would raise agency levels amongst the majority of households is still required if smallholder farming households are to respond effectively to the policy of liberalisation of agricultural markets. The policy had blurred the traditional distinction between males’ and females’ crops by transforming all crops, including the traditional females’ crops (food crops), into cash crops, had increased joint working of males and females in agriculture and had influenced a growing positive attitude towards women’s earning of income outside the home. There however is still resistance to women’s earning of income, especially outside the household, which is believed to negatively affect women’s obligations towards their homes, husbands and children. There also still are deep-rooted traditional beliefs in men’s responsibilities for financial provisioning in their households, even amongst women. Inability to meet these obligations earned men a derogatory reference to being mundu y’a waka (merely a household gun). This means that even with improvements in gender relations brought about by the policy of liberalisation of agricultural markets, core aspects of gender relations relating to roles and responsibilities of males and females within households are yet to be dismantled, which in a way reinforces the financially dependant status of women on men. The new structural opportunities associated with the policy were also eroding established patterns of gendered behaviour within households and communities with separation and divorce carrying lesser stigma and women preferring to settle marital conflicts in public institutions compared to the privacy of their own homes or the homes of their parents-in-law, as was the case traditionally. Finally, this study demonstrated the symbiotic relationships between actor and structure theoretical approaches evidenced in the mutual constitutioning of livelihoods and gender relations. Households that exhibited ideologies of common interest (collective actors) responded to the policy of liberalisation of agricultural markets (structure) more successfully compared to households that exhibited ideologies of divided interest wherein males and females acted as individual actors. Gender relations not only therefore affected response to public policy but public policy also had effect on gender relations. Thus, policy makers need to be aware of the mutual constitutioning of livelihoods and gender relations if desired responses to policy are to be elicited from rural smallholder agricultural households.
A gender analysis of income generating activities in selected Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camps in Lira District, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2009-09) Alum, Santa Sandra

The study carried out a gender analysis of income generating activities in selected camps for internally displaced persons of Lira Primary Seven, Erute Prison and Starch Factory in Lira district. Specifically, it aimed at establishing the sources of capital for the income generating activities of displaced women and men, benefits and challenges of the income generating activities. The motivation was the fact that displacement places a very heavy burden on women as they combine both reproductive and productive roles. The study used a cross sectional design. The study involved 102 female and male respondents; in-depth study was held with 18 key informants who were purposively selected, and 2 focus group discussions (one male and one female) were conducted. The study established that more women (62%) than men (38%) participated in income generating activities; the major source of capital for the income generating activities was personal resources. The most dominated activities were causal labour, vegetable/fruit and petty trade. Participation of displaced men and women in income generating activities contributed towards the welfare of their families and women were empowered. On resettlement, IDPs hoped to do farming, petty trade and handicraft as their major income generating activities. Generally, displaced persons were faced with problems like, lack of capital and land but women in particular were in addition affected by domestic violence and were overburdened. The study recommended the need to provide skills and financial support to men and women in displacement, strengthen their existing income generating initiatives, and support them upon resettlement.
The responses of women interfaced with domestic violence and the implications on the household welfare

(Makerere University, 2009-09) Kamusiime, Annah

The aim of the study was to examine the different responses of women interfaced with domestic violence and the implications on the household welfare. To examine this, several categories of people were purposively selected. Respondents in this study included women who have ever faced domestic violence, leaders in the community and married women and men of Kikunyu village in Mpigi district. The study utilized Radical feminist theory which explains the root causes of women’s oppression. Further, the study utilized the concept patriarchy to explain the power struggles between men and women. And lastly the study employed the concept Agency to understand women’s responses to domestic violence. The study established that domestic violence is only understood as physical abuse but still, some physical abuse is also treated as a mechanism to manage the home effectively. In what seems to be a “choiceless” situation, women make “choices” and whatever choice they make has capacity to achieve a given goal. Women may be seen to be passive recipients of violence, but they fight back indirectly in form of deception, manipulation, disguise, subversion and negotiation. On rare occasions, women respond to domestic violence in form of resistance and protest. Women mainly fight back indirectly such that they punish their abusers yet stay with them so that their children may not suffer if they abandoned their marriages. As a result, food production of the homes which are affected by domestic violence reduces since women withdraw part of their labour. Stemming from the findings, the study recommends that the different actors in the fight against VAW should understand the meaning of domestic violence from the community’s perspective. Also the office of the probation and that of the department of Family Protection Unit in Uganda police should extend to all sub counties and be able to reach the grassroots.
A gender analysis in access to and utilization of micro finance resources: A case of Kabarole Research Centre, Rwenzori, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2009-09) Murungi, Irene

The aim of this study was to undertake a gender analysis of women’s access to and utilization of micro finance resources in Uganda and how different this could be for men. The study questioned the gender inequalities embedded in women’s and men’s accessibility to and utilization of a credit resource. There were earlier indications in PEAP, 2002 that indicated a possibility of accessibility to Micro finance as one of the strategies that could contribute to poverty reduction among both men and women. The study also questioned that and investigated the extent to which such a strategy could make a change in incomes at household level. The questions on access to and utilization of credit resource, were examined through the process of credit provision at client and Micro Finance Institution level in ways that examine the prospects and challenges which female and male clients go through in order to access financial resource. Further assessment was made through tracing the utilization of this credit resource at household level. In terms of methodology, main tools used were, questionnaires, Focus Group Discussion guide, interview schedule and non participant observation to collect data from 120 respondents; 30 questionnaires were administered to the Micro Finance Association (MFA) beneficiaries; an interview guide was administered on Kabarole Resource Center-MFA project staff and Micro Finance Officers; the study further employed Focus Group Discussions with MFA group members. The above total was arrived at by writing a list of names of people who attended and the researcher randomly chose names of the even numbers on the list. From Kisomoro and Kibito MFAs, the attendance lists were made of 50 Members from each MFA representatives; the first 15 names from even numbers were selected to attend to questionnaires for both MFAs and the first 40 members on the list without segregating attended to focus group discussions; for each MFA 2 staff members, 1 Micro Finance Officer and 2 group chairpersons were purposively selected and responded to the interview guide. The findings of the study indicate that microfinance products are available and accessible to both male and female MFA members (source: field data). It also illustrates that where as men and women equally utilize resources, they do not have equal control over resource and decision making is largely done by men, apart from women from female headed households. This is due to different factors like patterns in domestic roles, lack of collateral, long distances, male signatories, male domination, control of resources and decisions. In conclusion therefore, the programme has helped in transforming the lives of men and women. Men and women at community level have acquired, saved and managed funds. At the household level, men and women have been mobilized to help in starting and upholding income generating activities; the status of women has been enhanced and engagement in local community management structures and issues improved at household and community level. Both men and women have equal opportunities, despite the several setbacks in ensuring equal access to and utilization of micro credit. To make the MFA project realize benefits to the people at the grass-root, the study recommends intensive gender training for KRC staff and MFA members, so as to make a thorough integration of gender in Micro finance Resource (MFR) access to, utilization and control among clients; and since women lack self confidence and the power to make decisions that is why they comprise over 50% in group leadership, but the few men there in make decisions.
The modelling of masculinities and the construction of fatherhood in contemporary Uganda: A case of Kampala City

(Makerere University, 2009-09) Magezi, Maria

This study was conducted to contribute to a significant gap in development research by investigating how intra-household relations could help reduce unequal development. The aim of the study then was to determine how the modeling of masculinities influenced the construction of fatherhood. This was done by looking at the process through which men became fathers and the expectations therein. It involved rigorous quantitative and qualitative analysis of models of masculinity, attitudes of fathers in childcare and societal expectations of men in the media. The respondents and newspaper samples were purposively selected. The findings of this study highlight issues that should be of serious concern in gender studies, and social policy making. Analysis found that masculinity was overwhelmingly represented and modeled predominantly with provision, decision making, and ensuring discipline but not with active participation in childcare. This study concludes that masculinity models pose ways for boys to become male adults but provides no models for becoming fathers. Hence, there are clear expectations for men as portrayed in the media but for fathers none and it is sufficient that they fit the ‘masculine’ label. This makes fatherhood and childcare to be trivialized in regard to masculinity and the potential implications are discussed in light of fathers’ increased involvement in childcare to provide models and set clear expectations for fathers. The influence of the media, men’s sexuality, and patriarchy were proposed as areas for further study.
Gender relations and ICT adoption in contemporary Uganda: a case of computers and mobile telephones

(Makerere University, 2010) Madanda, Aramanzan

The thesis is about gender relations and adoption of computers and mobile phones in Uganda. The main objective of the study is to assess how gender relations relate to diffusion and adoption of ICT and women’s empowerment under liberalised ICT policy. Specific objectives are to: analyse accessibility and utilisation of computer technology and mobile telephony by gender; examine the influence of gender relations on diffusion and adoption of computer technology and mobile telephony by women and men; assess how adoption of computer and mobile telephone technology influences gender relations at household and community levels; and analyse apparent benefits and opportunities of computer technology and mobile telephony to women and men. The study that eclectically draws on feminist, neoliberal economic development and diffusion of innovations theory is exploratory and cross-sectional in design. Fieldwork was conducted in two districts of Uganda namely Iganga and Mayuge using qualitative and quantitative methods. Results indicate that gender relations namely gender roles, power relations between women and men and emotional relations have a bearing on a number of aspects that relate to diffusion and adoption of computing and mobile telephony. These aspects include: the diffusion channels or ways, through which women and men access the technology; accessibility to technology which is not automatic even when women could afford to buy the artefacts; use which is mediated by considerations of safety especially for women and use which can result into desirable and undesirable outcomes at household or community levels. Findings show that existing gender structures have been dented and that patriarchy is stressed by adoption of the technologies especially mobile phones leading to transformation of gender relations to an extent. However underlying gender structures though fractured remain largely intact and limit the beneficial impact of ICT, in this case computing and mobile telephony particularly to women. The study finds a strong intersection between use of especially mobile phones and escalation of gender based violence. Further, it is noted that the overall ICT policy regime that is based on a free market ideology bears benefits to women and men as well, but these benefits are limited by the exclusion of certain sections of society particularly women engaged primarily in the agricultural sector which ostensibly is the mainstay of Uganda’s economy. The overall conclusion is, therefore, that ICT diffusion and adoption and its benefits can be meaningfully enhanced if attention is paid to gender relations at family, community and policy levels. This should involve ensuring that ICT policy is gender responsive and that elements of gender relations that stand in the way of leveraging ICTs for especially women’s empowerment are attended to by all actors including government, private companies, communities and individuals.
Female operated home-based enterprises and gender relations in male-headed households: A case of Wakiso Sub County

(Makerere University, 2010-04) Happy, Margaret

This presentation is about Female Operated Home-Based Enterprises and gender relations in male-headed household: A case of Wakiso Sub- County. The general objective of the study was to find out the effects of female incomes from home based enterprises on gender relations in a male-headed households. The specific objectives of the study were; to find out factors that determine women‘s participation in HBEs, to identify benefits derived from HBEs and physical assets acquired from HBEs, to determine how women’s decision making in the household is influenced by incomes from HBEs, to find out the major sources of general information used by the women engaged in HBEs, and to find out men´s attitudes and perceptions of women´s contribution to household income and expenditures. The methods of data collection were both qualitative and quantitative. The study covered 95 respondents of whom 60 were female. The following were some of the findings. The majority of the female respondents (24%) were aged between 26-41 years compared to 6.6% of the male respondents in the same age group. Most female respondents (28.5%) were peasant farmers compared to 12.6% of the male respondents. The majority (30.7%) of the female respondents had between (6 – 10) household members compared to (31.4%) of the male respondents The HBEs engaged in by women included retail fresh food 23%, animal and poultry rearing 18%, retail shop (12%), and retail cooked food (10%). A large proportion of the female respondents (32%) chose a HBE because of low cost. Other respondents engaged in HBEs because of convenience, profitability and domestic responsibilities. The study revealed that income from HBEs enabled women to access and control resources such plots of land and information. Other benefits derived from HBEs included financial independence, household maintenance and purchase of business facilitating equipments. The majority of female respondents revealed increased level of participation in household decision making. However, there was mixed reactions towards women's contribution to household budget. Some male respondents lamented about the problems that develop when a woman has an independent income such as disrespect for the husband and lack of openness about income and expenditures of the proceeds from HBEs. On the other hand, the female respondents revealed that men shun their domestic responsibilities and increased workload for the women. From the findings of the study several recommendations were made. First, the government should invest seriously in measures that reduce the workload of female entrepreneurs. Second, there must be legal reforms or enforcement of the existing legal frameworks to protect women from domestic violence which crops up as result of their refusal to hand over incomes obtained from HBEs to their male counterparts.
Women and peace building: The case of women involvement in peace building process in Gulu District.

(Makerere University, 2010-07) Akumu, Christine Okot

Women and peace building is a new area of study in developing countries in general and Uganda in particular. This work is a gender analysis of the role women have played in the peace building process in Gulu district, their experiences and challenges in implementing peace building programmes. The main objective of the study is to examine the role of women in peace building in Gulu district in northern Uganda. The study focuses on the actors involved in peace building, identifying and assessing peace building initiatives by women, nature of peace building programmes by women, challenges and experience of women in peace building from a gender perspective. The study provides a concise understanding of the problems encountered during this process. The study was exploratory and descriptive in nature and applied qualitative and quantitative approaches of data collection and analysis. Data was collected through quantitative and qualitative methods. The findings indicated that: Marital status, the level of education, social status, age, position, workload and cultural practices have highly contributed to the inadequate women participation in peace building at the public sphere. The study further established that women are active agents of peace building not silent passive and victims of conflict as portrayed by most practitioners and scholars. women’s active participation is seen in the peace initiative started by them resulting from collective traumatic experience leading to a concern. All women peace building programmes are community based and focus mostly on interpersonal conflict resolution and mediation; psycho social support programmes, direct relief of suffering, care for orphans and the sick, sexual and gender based violence, livelihood support and awareness rising to change attitudes and behaviour. From the findings, it was concluded that much as women played crucial roles in peace building and conflict resolution, women ascribed roles still posed a serious limitation to some aspects of peace building in the public sphere. Based on the above mentioned issues therefore, the study recommended that women education, peace building skills and participation of the IDPs in peace building should be enhanced. Lastly, the study highlighted areas for further research on women and peace building based on what was not included in the scope of the study.
Planning challenges in gender budgeting: A case study of the Watsan Sector in Mpigi District, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2010-08) Namusoke, Margaret

This study investigated factors, which affect the application of gender budgeting by planners in the WATSAN Sector in Mpigi district, Uganda. The problem was that many activities budgeting inclusive do ignore gender issues and concerns. The problem’s significance was that when gender issues are not addressed in activities, there is an imbalance in allocation resources. An assessment of the extent to which planners apply gender awareness and skills in budgeting for WATSAN sector including training attended was carried out. Planners’ practices and challenges faced in gender budgeting were studied. The overall objective of the study was to establish the challenges faced by planners in gender budgeting for the WATSAN Sector in Mpigi district. Specifically, the study tried to identify planners’ levels of awareness of gender; to ascertain planners’ attendance of training in gender budgeting and; To find out whether sub county and district planners adhere to gender policy guidelines while budgeting for gender in WATSAN Sector. Literature covered was gathered from primary and secondary sources of information which included books, journals and websites. The study applied a qualitative research design. The qualitative and quantitative methods were used to manage and analyse data. The key findings of the study were: The sub county and district planners encountered technical, administrative and political constraints in gender budgeting for the WATSAN sector included. The level of understanding of gender was low among sub county planners, but district planners had satisfactory understanding of gender. The attendance of training in gender budgeting was low at sub county level but satisfactory at district level. However, a large number of planners at both sub county and district levels had not attended any training in gender budgeting of whom the majority were non-technical planners. Therefore, there was inequality regarding training opportunities among planners. The differences between Sub-county and district planners’ levels of awareness of gender existed. This implied that the two days training on mainstreaming gender into planning attended by mainly district planners, had some impact. Therefore, capacity building through training improves levels of gender awareness. The use of guidelines and the application of steps in gender budgeting were unsatisfactory between both sub county and district planners. This meant either it was due to planners’ negligence or lack of access to the guidelines in the WATSAN sector. The few planners who did use guidelines identified them as the Poverty Eradication Action Plan and the Local Government Programme II Assessment Manual. There was sex stereotyping by planners when budgeting for men/boys and women/girls in the WATSAN sector. That is, male planners tended to have positive attitudes whereas female planners tended to have negative attitudes towards the inclusion of men/boys and women/girls issues when budgeting. Therefore, sex stereotyping did affect gender budgeting in the WATSAN sector. The study major recommendations were: Capacity building through training and partnerships is an important strategy in improving levels of awareness and skills in gender among the planners. Equal training opportunities should be given to both female and male planners, technocrats and non-technical planners so that implementers and policy makers gender awareness is harmonized. The government of Uganda should provide planners with gender budgeting guidelines. The district should encourage the planners to use recommended guidelines in gender budgeting. Mpigi district should address the technical, administrative and political constraints that planners face in order to improve their performance on gender budgeting. The government of Uganda’s commitments towards gender budgeting should be enhanced by indicating in its gender budgeting guidelines allocation of funds toward gender programme activities.
The construction of exclusion of girls with disabilities in schools: A case study of Naguru Preparatory School

(Makerere University, 2010-10) Nakazibwe, Darlison

This study aimed at examining how exclusion of girls with disabilities is constructed and illustrated in various forms of power differences within selected primary schools in Kampala district. The schools included Hill Preparatory School Naguru and Ntinda School for the deaf. The study questioned the extent to which exclusion of disabled girls is constructed through exercising of power between those with resources (the providers of education) and those who are receiving the services (pupils in the education system). Such argument was researched on through questioning the extent to which the person who is excluded, experiences a relative loss of social rights (like limited access to essential services such as education), as claimed by the Social Exclusion Theory. Such services included school infrastructural resources, curriculum, teaching methods and instructional materials that teachers use. The study further argued that exclusion of disabled girls can be constructed through multiple and overlapping nature of the disadvantages associated with their gender identity. This explanation of the research problem therefore, led the study to focus on the major concept of Exclusion in terms of not being included, being discriminated, having less power compared to those with resources, and being marginalized. The methods used included a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques in gathering information coupled with observation. The study targeted administrators, teachers, parents and the students in such schools for the disabled children. The findings of the study were based on a sample of fifty five (55) respondents. These included Head teachers (2), teachers (12), Assistant teachers (6), parents (10), Regular girls (10) and girls with disabilities (15 The findings revealed that CWDs comprised hyper-active (cannot concentrate in class), autistic (repeat teachers words all the time), dumb, lame, partially deaf, partially blind, among others. Girls with disability were being treated in the same way as regular except those with severe disabilities who would receive individualized attention, but not excluded from others. Again it was found that most teachers inexperienced in handling CWDs in addition to the inadequate curriculum specifically designed for regular children; timetables and evaluation procedures were not accommodating CWDs’ ability and the schools had limited resources though disability friendly. Further more, study results showed that some pupils were having additional identity of being CWDs which caused them to encounter problems while learning especially girls with disabilities but would prefer the system to special schools education. Again, findings showed that parents had a negative attitude towards CWDs but preferred special needs education teachers in special schools. In addition, findings indicated that exclusion of girls with disabilities could be attributed to discriminatory cultural practices combined with hash economic realities. The study recommended that communities and parents particularly male parents should be sensitized about disheartening cultural beliefs on CWDs so that they develop positive attitude and cater for their educational needs to minimize school drop outs. Again the study recommended that schools offering inclusive education should be aided and well equipped with enough resources like instructional materials suitable for CWDs in classes so that parents are relieved of extra charges which might be hard for some parents to pay especially the poor. The school administration should labour to pass information about the needs and weaknesses or disabilities of some pupils to teachers in time. School curriculum, timetable and evaluation procedures should be designed in such a way that they are CWD-friendly and address special needs of CWDs to avoid their exclusion from the school system. Further recommendations by the study were that teachers should receive training in special needs education to upgrade their knowledge and skills as well as go for refresher courses and workshops periodically in order to be able to handle girls with disabilities in all possible ways. Teachers and parents should work hand in hand to improve social skills and decrease the stress experienced by CWDs.
The influence of cultural and gender practices on fertility rates in Ruhaama County, Ntungamo District

(Makerere University, 2011-07) Komurembe, Gorett Rwabunumi

Culture simply means common beliefs and practices of a group of people. Culture defines the life choices of people thereby being part of the consequences that such choices bring. Culture is significant in understanding human fertility rates in modifying sexual fertility by relating sex and reproduction to the culture’s value system. There is belief that cultural values are inextricably woven in decisions that favor or oppose programmes affecting sexual activity and fertility. This belief is reinforced by modern demographical trends in the world and Uganda in particular where despite the harangued dangers of high population growth and thus measures put in place to control it has not yielded tangible fruits. Fertility rates in Uganda at 6.7 are one of the highest in the world. Consequently this has been attributed to the cultural and gender practices amongst the communities. This research report was compiled basing on the findings of a field study carried out in 2 sub-counties of Ntungamo and Itojo. 80 respondents were selected randomly in a household survey while 20 were key informants. The study set out to identify the cultural practices that inform and influence fertility in Ruhaama; assess the main gender practices at community and household level that affect fertility decisions and to identify other factors which influence and affect fertility decisions. Through a review of literature, the researcher was able to identify some links between culture and fertility both in varied time and geographical settings across the globe, thereby helping in the formulation of the objectives. In order to achieve the above objectives, the study adopted an exploratory research design, using a cross section of methods including qualitative and quantitative methods. Tools used included interview guide targeting key informants for qualitative data and a household survey questionnaire targeting the general members of the community. The findings of the study indicated that although the respondents were knowledgeable about family planning methods, majority were not using them. The study also found out that among the cultural practices relating to fertility in Ntungamo are cultural beliefs in extending the family lineage, polygamy, producing children of the same sex, early marriages, extra marital sex and sexual rituals. Among the gender practices that affect fertility, the respondents thought that these were women subordination, women economic dependence, women’s lack of control over information sources, women’s low status and multiple roles in a home. The other factors that affect fertility included distance to health facilities, availability of health facilities and services, education, awareness, financial ability, and religion. From the above findings it can be noted that cultural and gender practices had a huge impact on the total fertility rates in Ruhaama County. However, these were supplemented by other socio- economic factors to exasperate the already high fertility rate. It can be observed that the promotion of gender equality is paramount in the effective adoption of birth control methods and as such messages should focus on promotion of gender equity particularly the promotion of education of a girl child, women entrepreneurship and enterprise development so as to enable them acquire economic potential to take their own decisions and afford birth control methods without having to first beg the men. As such family planning service programs need to be gender and culturally sensitive in their implementation. Fertility transformation targets and the means to achieve them should consider men and their reproductive health needs to achieve total and equitable birth control targets.
Gender symbolism and technology uptake: A literature review

(IGI Global, 2012) Nsibirano, Ruth ; Kabonesa, Consolata ; Madanda, Aramanzan

ABSTRACT The need to promote adoption of technology in general and Information and Communication Technologies, computers, and the internet in specific terms has increasingly become of interest. Observation is that while some potential users take on the innovation with much ease, others remain less enthusiastic, and some do not uptake at all. In addition, there are differences noted between male and female users. The reasons influencing the differences are not yet well explained but could be as a result of gender symbolism. The objective of this chapter is to review literature on gender symbolism and cite explanations supporting the influence of GS on differences in uptake.
Access to and utilization of sexual and reproductive health services: gendered experiences of persons with physical disabilities in urban Kampala

(Makerere University, 2012) Ahumuza, Eva Sharon

In Uganda, like in many developing countries, issues of Sexual and Reproductive Health Rights (SRHR) among Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) particularly those with physical disabilities have largely remained hidden. This study focused on the gendered sexual and reproductive health experiences of Persons with Physical Disabilities (PWPDs) in Urban Kampala. The study sought to examine the level of awareness of PWPDs’ SRHR, the influence of body image on PWPDs’ sexual experiences and their access and utilization of SRHR as well as assess the mechanisms available for protection and promotion of PWPDs’ SRHR in Urban Kampala. The study draws from qualitative and quantitative data collected through semi-structured interviews with 40 PWPDs (20 male and 20 female) and 10 Key informant interviews with health workers, counselors and leaders of PWPDs and employees of agencies involved in disability related interventions at national level and within Kampala. Study findings revealed high levels of awareness about SRHR among male and female PWPDs in particular their rights to: reproduce, access to justice in case of sexual abuse and to choose intimate sexual partners. In addition, majority of the respondents (93% of the male and 95% of the female respondents) knew that they had a right to access reproductive health care and information services especially services related to STI diagnosis and treatment, HIV/AIDS counseling and testing services, antenatal care services and family planning services. In all the services, females had more knowledge than the males. There was however limited knowledge about abortion services because the practice is illegal. The major source of information on SRH for PWPDs in urban Kampala for majority of females (96%) than males (80%) was the health facilities. Other sources of information on SRH mentioned included; meetings/associations (41% female and 41% male), workshops (40% male and 35% female), radio (40% male) and schools (15% male and 5% female). Overall, just half male and more than half female respondents mentioned that antenatal care, family planning, STI diagnosis and treatment and HIV/AIDS counseling and testing services were within easy reach. Fifty percent (50%) male and 35% female of the study respondents reported that the facilities were inaccessible. While more female than male respondents have ever attended health facilities for different services including antenatal care, STI and HIV counseling and testing services, a number of challenges were highlighted including negative attitude of health workers, long queues at health facilities, distant health facilities and high cost of services. On reproductive rights, study findings show that majority female PWPDs had control over their reproductive lives with regard to the timing, number of children and type of contraception. On the influence of body image, slightly more male than female respondents were negatively affected by their physical appearance with regard to initiation of sexual activity, choice of intimate partner and access to and utilization of health services. Throughout the study PWPDs expressed their struggles to deal with societal attitudes and expectations particularly the belief that PWPDs should be asexual. Consequently discrimination especially for the males at the health centers was reported to be a major concern. Largely, awareness of laws that promote and protect the SRH for PWPDs was generally low among male and female respondents although majority of the respondents were aware of at least one structure involved in the promotion and protection of SRH for PWPDs. Structures mentioned included police, probation and welfare office, Kampala office for PWDs, courts of laws, community leaders. Although there are these structures in place, majority of respondents testified that PWPDs do not access justice in cases of sexual abuse. This was attributed to negative attitude of service providers. Communities and service providers’ negative attitudes emerged as a key constraint to PWPDs’ realization of their sexual and reproductive health rights. Thus both community members and service providers including health workers, police officers and legal staff should be sensitized on the rights and needs of PWPDs so as the adequately support the PWPDs. Sensitization efforts should also target PWPDs themselves to build their self-esteem and confidence and instill in them positive attitudes towards themselves. Government and non-government organizations should increase their levels of assistance to PWPDs and their caregivers to address the practical barriers in access of reproductive health services.
The roles of Nigiina self-help projects in empowering women in eradicating poverty: A case study of two women groups in Kawempe Division, Kampala District, Uganda, 2001-2010

(Makerere University, 2012-10) Kalema, Charles

Introduction: The research study was about the role Nigiina self-help projects in empowering women to eradicate poverty; A Case Study of two women groups in Kawempe-Division, Kampala Uganda 2001-2010.The groups are Kasule Twegatte women group Mpererwe –Mugalu zone and Tukole Bukozi women group Kiwonvu zone Mulago parish. Nigiina is a product of women’s innovation without external input or prompting as the case with many women’s NGOS, their focus on positive cultural values and customs augurs well for their future. Justification: The aim of the study was to determine the potential of Nigiina self-help projects to mobilize resources and promote socio-economic development in an effort to eradicate / reduce poverty among women. Research Methodology: The sample size included 75 respondents, 10 focus group members were also interviewed. The researcher also had to interviewed 5 (3Aunts and 2 local council leaders) Also 30 members from Tukole Bukozi group were interviewed and 30 members from Kasule Twegatte group. The study was based various data collection instruments used namely; Research methods(Qualitative and Quantitative), research Design(Case study), Area of study(Kawempe , Kampala District), Population size(75 members were interviewed), Sample size(30 members from each group 10 for focus group discussions,2 local council officials,3Aunts), Criteria for Selection( random sampling and purposive sampling), Data Collection tools,(Books, journals,Websites interviews, focus group discussions, participant observations, direct observations , Questionnaires), Data Management(the assigning of numerical values), Data Analysis(coding and analyzing data), and use of Photos. Findings: Nigiina reflects the African tradition of a communal approach of life . They are a product of women’s innovation without external input or prompting as the case with many women’s NGOS, their focus on positive cultural values and customs augurs well for their future. The study also found out that Nigiina are bound by common identity where everyone seem to know one another and are bound by common religious and cultural beliefs. Conclusions: Nigiina Self-help groups helped the members to acquire leadership skills which enabled them to enhance their mobilization capacity to fight poverty. Recommendations: Recommendations were made and these include frequent training by themselves, by members in business skills, provision of proper skills, provision of proper education to the members about business skills, leadership skills, and motivation factors, The members should see to it that there is continuity, encourage diversification of business; such as poultry, farming, trade and commerce etc., The government should come up with viable projects and workable strategies such as financing women projects, giving them softer loans at low interest rates, there is need to continue with our upward participation of girls/woman in school, women should form Nigiina on the basis of education for which they should raise money for school fees, a women group such as Nigiina has come to solve the concession issues of gender difference, Nigiina are seen as organization which are more on ground and managed in the most relevant manner
Examining women’s engagement with decentralized land structures at local government level: A case of Mukono district

(Makerere University, 2012-11) Kirungi, Jackline

This study set out to examine the prospects of the women’s engagement with decentralized land structures on women’s land rights. This was done through examining the ways through which women are making contact with land structures, taking the case of processes and procedures of operations of land structures at local government level. Targeted however were women both as clients but also as adjudicators in decentralized land structures in Mukono district. Socialist feminist theory guided this study. Women’s differentiated experiences, mainly as women but also as widows, mothers and sisters, sisters in law were used to understand women’s ways and reason of engagement with decentralized land structures. The study employed a cross section largely descriptive study design. Qualitative methods such as focused group discussions were conducted to inform findings of the study. In depth interviews with women clients to the decentralized land structures, key informants with officials were carried out. Observations during land structure operation were also used for data collection. The study reveals how the decentralized land structures provide for forums through which women begin to negotiate their substantive rights in land, though the grounds of struggle are not yet leveled a situation that make women’s gains at any stage, weak and tentative. The mechanisms of ascertaining rights in land are not yet standard and it is mainly women that tend to fall through the gaps of the ill-defined land rights systems. The customary land tenure system rights in land assume collective benefits at the expense of women. Titling and registration of rights in land serve to the advantage of those already with land of which majority women do not have land. There is need to envisage a land administration and management system that promotes shared benefits in land, otherwise the current land rights transfer system, that inform engagement, in all its multi-dimensions largely dispose women off land.
Examining women’s engagement with decentralized land structures at local government level: A case of Mukono district

(Makerere University., 2012-11) Kirungi, Jackline

This study set out to examine the prospects of the women’s engagement with decentralized land structures on women’s land rights. This was done through examining the ways through which women are making contact with land structures, taking the case of processes and procedures of operations of land structures at local government level. Targeted however were women both as clients but also as adjudicators in decentralized land structures in Mukono district. Socialist feminist theory guided this study. Women’s differentiated experiences, mainly as women but also as widows, mothers and sisters, sisters in law were used to understand women’s ways and reason of engagement with decentralized land structures. The study employed a cross section largely descriptive study design. Qualitative methods such as focused group discussions were conducted to inform findings of the study. In depth interviews with women clients to the decentralized land structures, key informants with officials were carried out. Observations during land structure operation were also used for data collection. The study reveals how the decentralized land structures provide for forums through which women begin to negotiate their substantive rights in land, though the grounds of struggle are not yet leveled a situation that make women’s gains at any stage, weak and tentative. The mechanisms of ascertaining rights in land are not yet standard and it is mainly women that tend to fall through the gaps of the ill-defined land rights systems. The customary land tenure system rights in land assume collective benefits at the expense of women. Titling and registration of rights in land serve to the advantage of those already with land of which majority women do not have land. There is need to envisage a land administration and management system that promotes shared benefits in land, otherwise the current land rights transfer system, that inform engagement, in all its multi-dimensions largely dispose women off land.
Examining womens’ participation in the management of government aided mixed secondary schools in Kabale district

(Makerere University, 2012-11) Tushemerirwe, Sylivia

The study was carried out in Kabale district using both qualitative and quantitative methods to examined women’s performance in management of government aided secondary schools. Qualitatively, interviews were carried out with different selected individuals and quantitatively, information was obtained using questionnaires issued out to the selected individual samples. The study took on equal numbers of female and male participants. It covered four government aided secondary schools that included Kigezi High School, St.Mary’s College Rushoroza, Bubaale Senior Secondary School and Nyaruhanga High School all in Kabale district. This research found out that women participation in leadership of government aided secondary schools was low and several challenges were discovered to have influenced this which included the policy and procedures, commitment in domestic roles, cultural issues, male domination and lack of women role models amongst other factors. It was also found out that there were few women in leadership positions in government aided mixed secondary schools. All the women were found in the positions of dean of studies, class teacher but none in the head teacher positions apart from one woman who was once a deputy of Nyaruhanga High School. Respondents showed the interest of having good perception on women attaining administration positions, although some respondents are still tied to traditional sentiments women are not fit to be in leadership position. The role of women is to produce children and take care of the home. On the other hand he observed that women are hardworking, excellent performers, can work under pressure, good administrators, transparent, accountable and committed to work especially when it comes to moral guidance and counseling to students. It was also found out that most of the church founded schools senior positions are influenced by the chairmen board of governors who in most cases were found out to be the current Bishops. This also remains a subject of contention. In conclusion, several recommendations rose that included to revise the broad educational aims and goals with an intension of incorporating gender concerns in the curriculum, through sensitizing female teachers and administrators in the education system and lastly but not least, there is need to adjust on the policies to likewise include more women particularly in policy formulation, monitoring and evaluation and thus encouraging them to have full participation in secondary school leadership and in especially government aided secondary schools in Uganda.
The influence of gender perceptions on access to and use of family planning by young married girls: A case study of Kigulu, Iganga District, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2013) Gblee, K. Izetta Tuah

Young married girls’ reproductive desires are strongly influenced by cultural beliefs, gendered beliefs and gendered stereotype (expectations of gendered roles) which produce gender perceptions. The belief that a girl’s primary value and role in society is that of a wife or mother can impact greatly on her family planning desires and decisions. In many societies, social cultural beliefs which falls within the context of gender perception place value on girl’s roles as wives and mothers at the expense of other potential roles, limiting the opportunities that are available for them. The major objective of this study was to examine how gender perception influence access to and use of family planning services by young married girls. The study employed both qualitative and quantitative techniques of data collections and analysis. It covered forty respondents and one focused group discussion with an average of thirty respondents and ten key informants. Study findings revealed that(100%) all respondents have heard and have knowledge about family planning services. The study further indicates that girls in child marriage who seek family planning services mainly face the challenge of the long line at the health facility, limited stocks, lack of money to transport themselves to the hospital (Boda Boda fare is from 3000 shillings - 5000 shillings)and walking long distances (10-15 km) from their homes to the health facility. Statistics show that 77% of young married girls use family planning secretly without the knowledge of their spouses because their husbands are not interested in family planning services while 5% of them use it with the knowledge of their husbands. These young married girls identified the need to sensitise their spouses, community, religious and traditional leaders about family planning and its benefits. There is also a need for the government, local and international NGO to restock the existing health service facility within Kigulu because these girls walk miles from their homes and before some get to the family planning centers, stocks are finished, the facility is closed or there is a long queue. Although the study was carried out successfully, some challenges were language barriers and participants were afraid to be recorded citing that their husbands will hear their voices on radio and it will cause problem for them. To conclude, cultural beliefs, gendered beliefs and gendered stereotype (expectations of gendered roles) which produce gender perceptions have negative impacts on young married girls accessing and utilizing family planning in Kigulu, Iganga District.

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