College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and BioSecurity (CoVAB)

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Abundance and distribution of wild animals around oil and gas facilities and infrastructure in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2025) Nahabwe, Enos

Oil and gas resources exploitation is being done by Total E & P in Murchison Falls National Park (MFNP). A study was carried out to determine the dynamics of wild animal interactions with oil and gas facilities and infrastructure with the aim of understanding how wild animals interact with and are affected by the facilities and infrastructure at different stages of development. The specific objectives of the study were: to determine the abundance, distribution, behaviour and ecology of wild animals around oil and gas facilities and infrastructures. The study was conducted at fourteen sites, eleven of which represented oil and gas facilities and infrastructures whereas the other three were tourist tracks. The vegetation characteristics differed remarkably across the study sites. The study involved field physical observations, use of camera traps and direct animal counts. Animal counts were done by use of transects with a width of 400 meters for large animals such as elephants, buffalos and giraffes; 200 meters for medium sized animals such as waterbuck, bushbuck, Uganda kob and 100 meters for small sized wild animals such as oribi, baboons, patas monkeys and birds. A pair of binoculars and field book guides and keys aided in animal identification. Animal behaviour was observed and recorded on designed data sheets. The well pads JBR 9 and 4 were natural favoured habitats for elephants; JBR2 was occasionally visited. Elephants were significantly more at JBR 4 than project access road (p=0.03, t=2.47) during the study period. Elephants, left JBR9 in March when drilling started. Elephants tolerated well pad preparation activities. Giraffes appeared in JBR 9; and occurred in JBR 8, 5 and 3 (their most favoured habitats only when pad site preparations were done in November during late rainy season and disappeared till April- during the early rainy season when forage was recovering. This finding suggested that there was seasonal giraffe migration dictated by seasonal nutritional feed abundance. There were significantly more giraffe populations seen in Victoria track than project access road (p=0.04, t=2.25). Buffalo were found in their favoured habitats JBR 8 site which was under preparatory phase, JBR5 which was already drilled and Victoria tourist track. Their population was more in Victoria tourist track than project access road (P=0.02, t=2.86). Currently buffaloes were not affected by Tilenga project activities. Population of Uganda kobs were more in their most favored habitats of JBR 8, 5 and Victoria track. The Uganda kobs were not currently being affected by project activities. Few Uganda kobs were seen at project access road than in Victoria track (p=0.03, t=2.39) and JBR5 (p=0.04, t=2.22). There was a significant difference of mean Jackson’s hartebeest abundance between project road and Victoria track (p=0.03, t=2.54), stringing area (p=0.02, t=2.78), and JBR9 (p=0.03, t=2.46). JBR8 was natural habitat for hartebeest which had undergone preparatory phase. Although JBR 5 was supposed to be a favored habitat, they were only seen during in November when feed nutrients were available but disappeared when they got exhausted. This implied that hartebeest fled to a refugee habitat when feed resources got exhausted. More hartebeest populations were found in the newly constructed access project road than Victoria track (p=0.03, t=2.54), stringing area (p=0.02, t=2.78) and JBR9 (p=0.03, t=2.46). The project road provided lush pasture and easy predator visibility detection. Overall, there was a significant difference of variation of oribi populations across sites at MFNP (p=0.03, df 10,55, F=2.18). Oribis were more abundant in the project access road than other tourists tracks (Albert track (p=0.004, t=4.18 and New Buligi Track (p=0.01, t=3.22); and JBR8 (p=0.05, t=1.92), and JBR2 (p=0.001, t=5.38). There significantly less oribi populations seen in JBR 9 and JBR 2 when drilling activities were being carried out. This implied that they moved out of these sites. There was no significant variations of baboons populations across sites at MFNP (p=0.2, df 9,50, F=1.46). However less significant populations of baboon populations were seen in JBR9, 10 and JBR 2. There was significant difference of mean abundance of warthog between project access road and the other tourist tracks (New Buligi Track (p=0.006, t= 3.71); Albert track (p=0.04, t=2.24) and Victoria track (p=0.003, t=4.52)); and Stringing Area (p=0.004, t=4.19). The project access road provided habitat for wallowing and gravel stone salt leaking sites. There were more waterbucks at JBR 9 near the water sources in November and December during late rainy season and thereafter disappeared. There were less waterbucks seen at the project road than New Buligi Track (p=0.004, t=4.19) and Albert track (p=0.004, t=4.36). There were significantly more patas monkeys seen in Albert track that the project road (p=0.04, t=2.12). There was substantial number of aquatic fowl (Egyptian geese (7.7±2.8); grey crowned crane (4.7±3.1); herons (2.6 ±2.4) and ibis (1.7±1.2) to sustain water game fowl viewing at the designated Ramsar site wetland with the oil and gas facilities and infrastructure. Carnivores mainly lions, hyenas and leopards were not easily seen during day time at oil and gas facilities but were captured at night by camera traps.
African animal and human trypanosomiasis in South Eastern Uganda: animal reservoirs, vector competence and characterisation of trypanosoma brucei isolates

( 2008-12-09) Waiswa, Charles

This study was designed to investigate the factors responsible for the persistence of sleeping sickness in southeastern Uganda. In addition to the general aspects, this investigation was specifically designed to study the role of the domestic animal and vector competence as factors in the transmission and persistence of sleeping sickness in the affected foci of southeastern Uganda. The study area was zoned according to the agricultural system and three zones (designated zone I, II and III representing Kamuli, Mukono and Tororo districts respectively) were studied as these were found to be predominant in many of the sleeping sickness foci of Kamuli, Mukono and Tororo. Investigations carried out have indicated a trypanosomosis prevalence of 13.25% among cattle, 17.53% among pigs, 1.75% among small ruminants and 0% in dogs. These figures are high especially in cattle and pigs, moreover, the Trypanozoon prevalence was estimated at 4.99% among cattle, 13.89% among pigs and 0.44% in the small ruminants. Using the human serum resistance tests and PCR, this study has continued to emphasise the importance of cattle as a reservoir for T.b. rhodesiense and in addition, these techniques have proved that the pig (both BIIT and PCR) and sheep (BIIT) are very important reservoirs of T.b.rhodesiense. The sole vector for sleeping sickness in zone and II was found to be G.fuscipes fuscipes. However, in zone III, both G.f.fuscipes and G.pallidipes were trapped, with G.f.fuscipes (99.72% of the total tsetse trapped) being the predominant vector. The prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in zone I was 8.73%, with T.brcucei infections estimated at 3.87%. Of all the trypanosomes isolated from cattle, 44.33% were grouped as belonging to the T.brucei subgroup. On further characterisation with the human serum resistance test, none of these T.brucei subgroup isolates from cattle in this zone was potentially human infective. However, using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), one of the T.brucei isolates was found to be carrying the human serum resistance associated (SRA) gene, an indication that it was potentially human infective (T.b.rhodesiense) thus helping to define the role played by cattle in the transmission of sleeping sickness in this zone. Meanwhile, in this zone (zone I), the point prevalence of trypanosomosis in pigs was 16.33% and T.brucei subgroup infection among the infected pigs was 82.48%. When the T.brucei subgroup isolates were analysed, 30.19% were found to be potentially human infective by the human serum resistance test and 75% of the T.brucei subgroup isolates analysed by PCR were found to be carrying the SRA gene. The presence of potentially human infective T.brucei subgroup in pigs makes this animal species the predominant reservoir and the major risk factor in the transmission and persistence of sleeping sickness in zone I. In addition, 30.6% of the tsetse in zone I get their blood-meal from pigs, which implies that the “pig-tsetse-human cycle” is the predominant sleeping sickness transmission cycle in zone I. The prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in zone II was 13.08% with T.brucei subgroup infections estimated at 6.01%. Of the isolates characterized, 45.89% were grouped as T.brucei subgroup infections, of which 10.53% were potentially human infective according to the BIIT results and therefore grouped as T.b. rhodesiense. In addition 5% of the T.brucei subgroup isolates were found to be having the SRA gene. The cattle-tsetse-human sleeping sickness cycle is one of the two sleeping sickness transmission cycles in this zone. Similarly, the point prevalence of trypanosomosis in pigs in zone II was found to be 22.92%. The T.brucei subgroup infections among the trypanosomes isolated from the pigs was 85.51%. Of these T. brucei subgroup isolates, 26.09% were found to be potentially human infective as characterised by the BIIT. Using the SRA-PCR, 31.58% of the T. brucei subgroup analysed were found to be carrying the SRA gene. In addition to the cattle-tsetse-man cycle, the pig-tsetse-human sleeping sickness transmission cycle is the other major cycle in this zone which is supported by the 14.53% of the tsetse that get their bloodmeals from pigs in the zone. The prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in zone III was 17.91% with T.brucei subgroup infections estimated at 7.34%. Of all the trypanosome infections among cattle in this area, 41% were grouped as T.brucei subgroup infections. Using the human BIIT, 47.30% of these T.brucei subgroup isolates were found to be potentially human infective and therefore grouped as T.b.rhodesiense. Similarly, 23.81% of the T.brucei subgroup isolates from cattle were confirmed to be carrying the SRA gene. Basing on these results, the cattle-tsetsehuman is the major sleeping sickness transmission cycle in zone III. Meanwhile, the prevalence of trypanosomosis in pigs in this zone was 2.44% and there were no T.brucei subgroup infections detected, implying that pigs may be playing a minimal role in the transmission of sleeping sickness in this zone. For the small ruminants kept in zone III trypanosomosis prevalence was 13.79%. All the trypanosome infections were found in the sheep. Interestingly, a potentially human infective T.brucei trypanosome was isolated from the sheep in this zone, suggesting that the sheep-tsetse-human sleeping sickness transmission cycle is contributing to the persistence of sleeping sickness in this area. The trypanosome infection rates in tsetse were 1.75% in zone I, 1.00% in zone II and 1.82% in zone III. The species trapped in zone I and II was G.f.fuscipes, which was also predominant in zone III with few catches of G.pallidipes. The infections were detected in female tsetse that were more than three weeks old. There were no infections among the male tsetse in all the zones which has been attributed to the low average age of the males (11days or less), implying that the males don’t live long enough to allow the infection to mature. The tsetse feeding preference studies have supported the major sleeping sickness transmission cycles for the three zones as suggested above. A total of 394 tsetse blood-meals were analysed to identify the host that was the source of the blood meal. Hosts for 75.64% of the bloodmeals were identified and at 26.4%, cattle were on average the most preferred host for G.f.fuscipes in southeastern Uganda (all the three study zones combined). Of the bloodmeals analysed, 55.1% were identified as having come from domestic animals and humans. This study has recorded large percentages of domestic animals as the major hosts for tsetse in all the three zones. There were however differences in the contribution of individual hosts in the three zones, with pigs being the major host in zone I, the monitor lizard and cattle for zones II and III. The results also indicate that under natural circumstances, G.f.fuscipes will feed on the available hosts in a given ecological environment. The preferred hosts were mainly cattle, pig, monitor lizard, sheep, goat, human, dog and chicken. This study has indicated that the domestic animal-tsetse-human cycle is the major sleeping sickness transmission cycle in all the three zones, the differences being the animals acting as the disease reservoirs in the three sleeping sickness foci (Agroecological zones) of southeastern Uganda.
Analysis of poultry traditional indigenous knowledge mystical systems and their role in control and prevention of poultry diseases, Masaka District.

(Makerere University, 2010-09) Nampanzira, Dorothy

This study was done to analyse the poultry traditional indigenous knowledge mystical systems (TRIKOMS) and their role in control and prevention of poultry diseases in Masaka district, Uganda. This study aimed at, determining the meaning of myths and belief practices among different social classes identify and document the elements of myths and beliefs related to prevention and control of poultry diseases and to determine the factors that lead to the survival of the myths and belief practices in the community. Qualitative methods of data collection and analysis were used. Results of the study showed that the meaning underlying the myths and beliefs are, to strengthen socio relationships, ensure food security, promote human health and for spiritual or religious functions. In addition, majority (63%) of the myths and beliefs practices decoded encouraged poultry disease spread while 13.5% encouraged disease control. Furthermore, it was found out that there were no clear-cut channels of transfer of knowledge from one generation to the other and there are several factors that have led to the degradation of the myths and belief practices in the communities. The study concludes that despite the importance of TRIKOMS to communities there is a need to sensitize the communities on the potential role of these systems in the spread of poultry diseases. Human phenomenon is important in influencing the outcome of poultry disease control. Thus veterinary research scientists should desist from focusing on only poultry, pathogens and vectors in their research endeavors in poultry diseases control. More efforts ought to be directed towards understanding the human phenomenon.
Analyzing diagnostic infrastructure and capacity building needs for effective rabies control strategies in selected districts of Uganda

(Makerere University, 2024-11) Apio, Felister

Rabies remains a significant public health concern in Uganda, particularly in rural districts where the disease is often underreported and inadequately managed. This study aims to assess the management and control strategies of rabies in selected districts of Uganda, with a specific focus on evaluating the diagnostic infrastructure and identifying capacity-building needs within district veterinary laboratories. Through a comprehensive analysis involving 42 key informant interviews with veterinary practitioners, laboratory technologists and nurses; 8 focus group discussions with veterinary para-professionals and a direct observation of laboratory facilities, the findings reveal significant disparities in the availability and functionality of veterinary laboratories, with Masaka and Arua exhibiting relatively well-established facilities, while Kyegegwa lacks any veterinary laboratories entirely. Soroti has a partially functional laboratory. The study also identifies key challenges, including gaps in diagnostic capabilities, resource limitations, and the need for enhanced training programs elaborated by participants with quotes such as “Inadequate facilities…”, “Limited understanding of procedures..”, “Collecting samples is risky...”, “More training is needed..”. The study underscores the critical importance of strengthening diagnostic infrastructure and capacity building in district veterinary laboratories to improve rabies management and control efforts. The findings advocate for Implementing comprehensive on job training programs for veterinary personnel in all districts, with a focus on proper sample collection techniques, testing procedures, and improvement and maintenance of diagnostic equipment including creating awareness among the community and increasing their level of knowledge about rabies in order to increase reporting and improve the management of rabies.
Animal health intervations for human health benefits

( 2008-12-22) Fyfe, Jenna ; Waiswa, Charles ; Picozzi, Kim ; Odiit, Martin ; Coleman, Paul ; Welburn, Sue
Anti-cancer potential of selected Nigerian medicinal plants: Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Walp. and Maerua angolensis DC

(Makerere University, 2025) Muhammed, Abdurrasheed Ola

Two commonly used plants were selected for anti-cancer activity and safety evaluation. To achieve this, an ethnobotanical study was undertaken and use-value analysis was employed to select the plants. The ethanolic and petroleum ether of each plant's crude extracts were subjected to phytochemical analysis, toxicity studies and anticancer testing. Both qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analyses were undertaken using standard methods. Acute and subacute oral toxicity studies were done using the OECD limit test and 28-day repeated dose methods, respectively. Brine shrimp lethality assay was used to screen for plant toxicity. The MTT assay was performed on prostate (DU 145), breast (HCC 1395) and colorectal (CT 26) cancer cell lines. Vero E6 and doxorubicin were used as a normal cell line and a positive drug control, respectively. Apoptotic potential of the extracts on DU145 and HCC1395 cell lines was evaluated by qRT-PCR for the expression of p53 and Bax genes. Data was subjected to One-Way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni multiple comparison test using SPSS, version 21.0. The values were expressed as means ± standard deviation (SD). The P-value <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Maerua angolensis and Gliricidia sepium were the most commonly used plants. Both G. sepium and M. angolensis extracts were rich in phytochemical compounds, with plants harvested during the rainy season being the richer. Both extracts were safe with LD50>5000 mg/kg. Compared to Cyclophosphamide (LD50= 59.70), both PE extracts were highly cytotoxic (LD50 =7.91-47.10). The subacute toxicity study showed a significant decline in K (4.60±0.3) and WBC (7.23±0.6) for G. sepium, and Cl, WBC and lymphocytes for M. angolensis (p > 0.05) compared to the control. The stomach and spleen showed mild erosive gastritis and moderate splenic hyperemia, respectively. The ethanolic extract of G. sepium showed high antiproliferative potential (IC50 <20µg/mL) and high selectivity index (7.2-12.3) in all cell lines. Maerua angolensis ethanolic extract also exhibited high antiproliferative activity but with a very low selectivity index (0.3-0.8) compared to doxorubicin (1.8-4.0). The qRT-PCR analysis of HCC1395 and DU145 cancer cell lines demonstrated upregulation of p53 with a high fold change (61.3-22.6) and slightly upregulated Bax genes with a low fold (1.05-1.17). In conclusion, G. sepium ethanolic extract exhibited antiproliferative activity and promoted apoptosis by inducing p53/Bax-mediated signalling pathway safely with high selectivity level. Maerua angolensis extracts, though, possessed anticancer activity, exhibited low selectivity index and some organ toxicity. Therefore, communities should use it with caution, and both extracts may be researched further to isolate and elucidate the bioactive compounds responsible for their anticancer activities.
Antibacterial activity and acute toxicity of herbs used in treatment of water borne diarrheal diseases in Butaleja District

(Makerere University, 2021-04) Ongodia, Raphael

Uganda is still negatively impacted by a huge burden of water borne diseases, the heaviest being diarrhoeal diseases. This may result in high morbidity and mortality rates if left unattended to. The study documented herbs used in Butaleja district to treat water borne diarrhoeal diseases and evaluated their antibacterial efficacy and safety. This was achieved by: conducting an ethnobotanical survey employing observation, focus group discussions, informal, field & in-depth interviews; Evaluating in vitro antibacterial activity for crude ethanol, petroleum ether and aqueous extracts of six preferred medicinal plants against selected bacteria species: Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium perfringens (gram positives) and Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli (gram negatives) using agar well diffusion, minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values determined using a microplate serial dilution technique and consequently minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values; Evaluating oral acute toxicity of three preferred plant extracts in BALB/c mice of 5-7 weeks using old Lorke’s method. Ethnobotanical data was summarized using descriptive statistics, antibacterial assay data analysed using one-way analysis of variance and then tukey tests, acute toxicity data was subjected to probit analysis to determine median lethal doses. Fifty-six plant species from 31 families were reported, most dominant family was Fabaceae with eight plant species, 40% were sourced from wild and home gardens, tree life forms (33%) were most dominant, most dominant plant parts were leaves (37%), most dominant mode of preparation was decoction (40.9%) and most frequently cited plants were Microglossa pyrifolia & Tamarindus indica with a 5% frequency of citation. The preferred plant species basing on informant consensus were Erythrina abyssinica, Zanthoxylum leprieurii, Hydnora abyssinica, Cryptolepis Sanguinolenta, Diospyros natalensis, Securidaca longipedunculata. Five out of six preferred plant species exhibited antibacterial activity in at least some extracts with variable potency with MIC values ranging from 0.039 mg/mL to 2.5 mg/mL whereas MBC values ranged from 0.313 mg/mL to 5.0 mg/mL of crude extract. All three most effective plant extracts showed LD50 values above 5000 mg/kg of body weight, therefore, exhibited safety margins so people may use them without any doubts though more studies are required to isolate active compounds. The best solvent people should use is alcohol because they extract out active ingredients best which can be used to provide leads for drug discovery and among the selected plant species, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta was most effective.
Antibacterial and phytochemical properties of selected poultry ethnomedicinal plants in Masaka District

( 2010-12) Nalubega, Rebecca

Poultry farmers have problems of poor production, poultry diseases and the publica is vulnerable to zoonoses. Indigenous practices such as the use of herbal medicines and concoctions have been a form of therapy for poultry among resource-poor small holder farmers. Indigenous practices are considered by scientists to be risky to both human and animal health. A few farmers use conventional veterinary drugs like antibiotics most times unnecessarily and this is making disease causing bacteria more resistant to the drugs and therefore becoming a threat to public health. Documentation and validation of indigenous medicine is therefore necessary because they are likely to be important in future especially given the trend of emerging diseases and the development of resistance of pathogens to drugs. To solve the problems facing the poultry industry, documentation of data about indigenous knowledge data about the herbal plants as well as antibacterial and phytochemical analysis to validate this data was carried out in this research. The information, focused group discussions and key informant interviews were conducted. Ethanol, ether and water extracts of selected medicinal plants and five concoctions were screened for antibacterial activity against Staph. aureus, Strep. faecalis, E. coli and S. typhimurium, using agar well diffusion and tube dilution methods. Their Phytochemical composition of selected plants was also investigated. The results indicated that fifty nine plants from 33 families were commonly used and family Asteraceae had the highest number while most frequently used plants were Cannabis sativa and Nicotiana tobaccam. Plants were mainly used for prophylaxis and the oral route was the common route of administration while leaves were the most commonly used plant parts. In general, gram-positive bacteria were more susceptible than gram-negative bacterial species. Ethanol and ether extracts had better antibacterial activity than water extracts. The water extract of Moringa oleifera had activity on all the four bacteria species. The water extracts of Persea americana had the lowest MIC on S. typhymurium therefore the best activity. Leonotis nepetifolia and Lantana trifolia had the lowest MIC on Staph. aureus therefore the best activity. Phytochemicals such as tannins, sterols, basic alkaloids and alkaloid salts featured in most of the tested plants. From these results, the study has found out that ethanol and ether are better solvents and can be used as alternative solvents to water by the poultry farmers to make medicinal preparations. The study has further shown that these plants have good antibacterial activity. Moringa oleifera leaves could be used to treat a wide number of diseases, Persea americana leaves could be used to treat salmonella infections while Leonotis nepetifolia and Lantana trifolia leaves could be used to treat staphylococcal infections in poultry. These plants also have phytochemicals of medicinal importance. However the study has not isolated the specific antibacterial principles, shown toxicity studies, shown activity of these plants on other organisms like other bacteria species, protozoa and helminths and carried out clinical trials. Further studies on these should therefore be carried out.
Antibacterial drug quantities, prescription and dispensing practices among veterinary drug shops in Eastern Uganda

(Makerere University, 2025) Yates, Dedan

Antibacterial overuse in food-producing animals is a recognised driver of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), particularly in low- and middle-income countries where regulation of veterinary drug use is limited. In Uganda, veterinary drug shops play a central role in the distribution of antibacterial drugs, yet data on quantities sold, prescription and dispensing practices remain scarce, especially at the regional level. This study quantified antibacterial sales over a 12-month period and assessed prescription and dispensing practices among veterinary drug shops in Eastern Uganda. A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2024 and January 2025 across 36 districts of Eastern Uganda. A total of 139 veterinary drug shops were surveyed using a structured questionnaire adapted from human medicine practices. Retrospective data on antibacterial drug sales over the preceding 12 months were extracted from shop records. Sales quantities were analysed using OIE criteria, and prescribing and dispensing practices were summarised using percentages and frequencies. Overall, 90478.51 Kg (90.478 tonnes) of antibacterials were sold during the 12-month period. Tetracyclines (59.19%), macrolides (11.57%), and fluoroquinolones (8.86%) were the most commonly sold antibacterial classes. According to the EMA Antimicrobial Expert Group (AMEG) classification, 72.7% of the sold antibacterials were low-risk for resistance development, while 95.0% were categorised as Very Critically Important Antimicrobials (VCIA) under the OIE classification. Based on the WHO criteria, most antibacterials sold (72.6%) were considered highly important for human medicine. Prescription and dispensing practices were generally poor, characterised by widespread non-prescription sales, reliance on verbal and farmer-initiated prescriptions, in-shop prescribing by unqualified attendants, inadequate client education, poor record keeping and weak inventory control practices. The findings indicate substantial sales of antibacterials through veterinary drug shops in Eastern Uganda, suggesting a high potential for use in Livestock production. However, actual consumption per unit of animal biomass could not be estimated due to the absence of reliable animal population data. The study highlights the need for enforceable national veterinary prescribing guidelines, mandatory prescription requirements, regular inspections of veterinary drug shops, training of drug shop attendants and standardised record-keeping systems. Routine National and Regional surveillance of antibacterial sales is recommended to support antimicrobial stewardship and inform policy decisions. Develop and distribute standardised, practical national guidelines for veterinary prescription and dispensing.
Antibiotic susceptibility profiles of bacterial species in snare wounds of selected large wild herbivores in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2025) Lubega, Joshua

Snare wounds are a major threat to the health and survival of large wild herbivores in Uganda’s protected areas, predisposing them to bacterial colonization. Despite the conservation and veterinary concerns of snare wounds in wildlife animals, especially the large herbivores, little is known about the bacterial species involved and their susceptibility profiles in Murchison Falls National Park. This study was conducted to identify bacterial species colonizing snare wounds in selected large wild herbivores and establish their antibiotic susceptibility profiles. A cross-sectional study was undertaken between July 2025 and January 2026, and 31 large wildlife herbivores (African elephants (Loxodonta africana), African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer), and Nubian giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) with active snare wounds were included in the study. The animals reported with snares were tracked and immobilised for snare removal and sample collection. Swabs were aseptically collected from snare wounds and transported under cold chain to the microbiology laboratory at Makerere University for analysis. The swabs were cultured and subjected to Gram staining and biochemical tests for bacterial identification. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method on Mueller-Hinton agar, following CLSI guidelines. Data were analysed descriptively, and non- susceptibility profiles were determined against commonly used antibiotics. The study revealed that samples collected from snare wounds were colonized with diverse bacterial species, with Staphylococcus aureus (29.4%), Escherichia coli (23.5%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (17.6%), and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (14.7%) being the most prevalent. Gram-negative bacteria were predominant (64.7%) isolated from the snare wounds. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed susceptibility of the isolated bacterial species to commonly used antibiotics (oxytetracycline, penicillin & streptomycin) however, high non- susceptibility to ampicillin (74.2%) and amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (58.1%) was recorded. The findings in this study revealed that snare wounds of the three large wild herbivores in MFNP were colonised with clinically significant and multidrug-not susceptible bacteria, posing risks to their health with implications on conservation efforts, and potential for transmission of not susceptible bacteria genes to other wildlife species. The study recommended integration of Antimicrobial non-susceptibility surveillance into wildlife health management program for free-ranging wildlife, strengthening the removal of snares from the conservation area through targeted patrols, enhance laboratory capacity, adopt the One Health approach and scale up long-term monitoring.
Antimicrobial knowledge among communities and sSusceptibility patterns of staphylococcus aureus isolated form wildlife-livestock-human Interface at Lake Mburo National Park, Western Uganda

(Makerere University, 2023-01-04) Matovu, Catherine

Antibiotic resistance has become a global public health concern because of the organisms causing infections are becoming resistant to most commonly prescribed antibiotic treatments, resulting in prolonged illness and greater risk of death. The knowledge of antimicrobial resistance is extremely vital to human, livestock and wildlife health. Such information can be relevant in understanding patterns of disease occurrences and prediction of emerging resistant bacteria strains. This cross-sectional study was aimed at assessing antimicrobial knowledge among host communities and susceptibility pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from wildlife-livestock-human interface at Lake Mburo National Park. A total of 277 samples were collected from domestic animals (58), humans (159), and wild animals (60). Isolation and identification were done for the Staphylococcus aureus organism and antimicrobial susceptibility determined using the disc diffusion test. The results indicated that the prevalence of Staphylococcus aureus was 17 (6.1%). From all the eight antimicrobial drugs used Staphylococcus aureus was most susceptible to Gentamicin (100%), Ciprofloxacin (100%), Imipenem (100%), Chloramphenicol (100%), Trimethoprim (94.1%) and Ceftriaxone (94.1%) respectively. Tetracycline and Ampicillin were the most resistant drugs by the Staphylococcus aureus species at 10 (58.8%) and 2(11.7%) respectively. Almost all participants 109 (93.2%) did not know how antimicrobial resistance came about and (70.1%) did not know that it could affect treatment outcome. In conclusion, we observed 17 (6.1%) isolates of Staphylococcus aureus which were more susceptible to Gentamicin, Ciprofloxacin, Imipenem and Chloramphenicol followed by Trimethoprim and Ceftriaxone but showed resistance to Tetracycline and Ampicillin which are frequently used by the communities around the wildlife-livestock-human interface in western Uganda. Therefore, there is need for broader susceptibility studies not only focusing on Staphylococcus aureus but also other micro-organisms. Additionally, policy and laboratory based antimicrobial resistance surveillance should be encouraged through continued data sharing, large-scale collaboration, and coordination of all stakeholders to understand and manage the national AMR burden.
Antimicrobial profiles of E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter spp from raw and roasted chicken meat. A case of vending points along selected highways in Uganda

(Makerere University, 2022-03) Pimundu, Godfrey

Food-borne pathogens are an emerging threat in lieu of increased population growth and urbanization. Safety of ready-to-eat foods notably those on highways is questionable as several cases of gastro-intestinal issues have frequently been reported. Paucity of data on microbial safety of ready-to-eat foods hinders appropriate planning of strategies to alleviate food related illnesses. Therefore, this study aimed at determining the prevalence of E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter in raw and roasted chicken meat vended on major sites along the three major routes in Uganda. A field based cross sectional study was carried out to establish the prevalence and susceptibility to antibiotics of E. coli, Salmonella and Campylobacter in raw and roasted chicken meat vended on major sites along the three major routes in Uganda that is Namawojjolo (Kampala-Jinja highway), Lukaya (Kampala-Masaka highway) and Balikyejjusa (Kampala-Gulu highway). E. coli was the most common contaminant in both roasted and raw chicken meat (72.4%, 110/152); followed by Campylobacter, (26.3%, 40/152) and lastly Salmonella (5.9%, 9/152). In raw chicken meat E. coli was the most isolated bacteria with 92.9% (78/84), followed by Campylobacter with 47.6% (40/84) and Salmonella with 10.7% (9/84). Roasted chicken meat was contaminated with only E. coli 47.1% (32/68) but was free of Campylobacter and Salmonella. The latter were abundant in raw chicken meat. Antimicrobial resistance was observed towards Ampicillin, Tetracycline and Amoxicillin and Clavulanic acid by E. coli and Salmonella. Meanwhile Campylobacter was mainly resistant to Ceftriaxone and Ciprofloxacin. Generally, hygiene and sanitation of the sites and vendors was very poor; poor personal hygiene, dirty abattoir surfaces, dirty knives used and dirty working environment with the presence of stagnant dirty water observed in one of the sites. Therefore, there is need to conduct full scale sensitization and continuous education to chicken meat handlers along these routes on standard hygiene and sanitation practices. A study to follow up at the poultry farms that supply these chickens is also needed to determine if meat contamination and antimicrobial resistance are associated with farming practices that can facilitate mitigation strategies.
Antimicrobial resistance and presence of class 1 integrons in salmonella serovars isolated from clinical cases of animals and humans in North Dakota and Uganda.

(OMICS, 2013) Mahero, M. ; Byarugaba, D. K. ; Doetkott, D. K. ; Olet, S. ; Khaitsa, M. L.

Back ground: Salmonellae are one of the leading causes of food borne illness worldwide and have been used as indicator organisms for studying antimicrobial resistance (AMR) trends. In the United States, Salmonella are among organisms currently under public health surveillance for AMR. Objectives: The objective of this study was to characterise AMR patterns of Salmonella isolates from animals and humans in North Dakota (ND), and Kampala, Uganda and determine the association between the observed AMR and presence of class 1 and 2 integrons. Methods: Salmonella isolates were collected from the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (VDL) at North Dakota State University and the North Dakota Department of Health, from 2003 to2008. Additional samples were also retrieved from archives at the Microbiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at Makerere University in Kampala, Uganda. AMR profiles were determined using a panel of 15 antimicrobials. Screening for the class 1 and 2 integrons was done using PCR with primers specific for the int1 and int2. Results: Out of 359 Salmonella isolates tested 36.2% were resistant to at least 2 antimicrobials. The highest resistance frequency was seen against Tetracycline (39.6%) and Streptomycin (34.7 %). A total of 20.7% (57/276) of the ND samples tested positive for presence of class 1 integrons and was significantly associated (p<0.05) with AMR to Ampicillin, Kanamycin, Tetracycline and Sulfisoxazole. Of all Ugandan Salmonella isolates tested (94.4% 68/72) were resistant to ≥2 antimicrobials with highest resistance observed against Sulfisoxazole and TrimethoprimSulphamethoxazole. Presence of class 1 integron was significantly associated (p<0.05) with AMR to Tetracycline and Amoxicillin. DNA sequencing of the class 1 integron variable regions identified several resistance genes including aadA1, dfrA7, and dfrA5 genes. Conclusion: These results signal serious implications for treatment of salmonellosis in both public and animal health.
Antimicrobial resistance of staphylococcus aureus; knowledge, attitude, and practices on antibiotic use among farmers in Isingiro and Kamuli districts – Uganda

(Makerere University, 2022) Awke, Ilyas Abdi

Bacterial resistance to antibiotics is fast becoming a big challenge as resistance to multiple drugs is rising rapidly. The emergence of resistant Staphylococcus aureus worldwide is life-threatening for both the human and animal sectors. The antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is accompanied by high morbidity and mortality. The study was designed to determine the prevalence of AMR in S. aureus among humans and animals, and the knowledge, attitude, and practice of farmers in relation to AMR of S. aureus. This was a cross-sectional study whereby households in Isingiro and Kamuli districts which have cattle were selected and nasal swab samples were collected from both animals and humans (farmers) and taken to the laboratory for processing and analysis using microbial techniques. Questionnaires were administered to the selected farmers to assess their knowledge, attitude, and practices. A total of 147 farmers were interviewed, 71 (48.3%) from Isingiro district and 76 (51.7%) from Kamuli district between July and September 2020. Data analysis was done using STATA version 15.0 with results reported as frequencies and percentages. The majority of the respondents were males in both Isingiro (77.5%) and Kamuli (71.4%). Cattle in Kamuli, S. aureus was isolated from 10/76 (13.2%, 95% CI 9.9-27.1) of animal swab samples. Cattle from Isingiro, S. aureus was isolated from 8/71 (11.3%, 95% CI 5.7-21.1) of animal swab samples. There was 100% susceptibility to Ciprofloxacin and Gentamycin among animals in both Kamuli and Isingiro. In Kamuli highest resistance was to penicillin G 100% and Metronidazole 100%. In Isingiro, highest resistance was to; Penicillin-G 75%, Ampicillin 87.5%, and Metronidazole 100%. Farmers in Kamuli, S. aureus was isolated from 29/76 (38.2%, 95% CI 24.7-66.2) of human swab samples. Farmers in Isingiro, S. aureus was isolated from 18/71 (25.4%, 95% CI 16.5-36.9) of human swab samples. In Isingiro there was 100% susceptibility to Ciprofloxacin and Gentamycin among humans. High resistance was to Penicillin G 94.7%, Ampicillin 94.7%, and Metronidazole (100%). In Kamuli high resistance was to Penicillin G 92.3%, Ampicillin 88.5%, and Metronidazole 100%. Farmers in Isingiro have better knowledge and attitude about AMR compared to those in Kamuli and the practices also significantly varied among farmers in the two districts (P-value < 0.05). 64.8% of the farmers in Isingiro said that the withholding period to wait until selling or consuming is 5 days, while the majority (34.67%) in Kamuli said there is no withholding period to wait until selling or consuming animal products. Staphylococcus aureus is still a burden among farmers in Isingiro and Kamuli districts and it was more prevalent in Kitayundwa and Mbaale sub-counts compared to Balawoli and Ndiizi sub-counts respectively. There is a need for a massive public awareness campaign to improve national awareness of AMR.
Antimicrobial resistance profiles of Escerichia coli in different farming systems in Kamuli and Isingiro districts of Uganda

(Makerere University, 2022-12-16) Nabirye, Dorah

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global crisis, as new forms of resistance emerge and are spreading quickly between continents. The problem of AMR is vast in developing countries, where the burden of infectious diseases is enormous. E. coli is commensal organism of the mammalian gut and is also a reservoir of AMR genes. Through horizontal gene transfer, E. coli exchanges genetic material especially of resistant genes making it a useful indicator of AMR. Additionally, it’s found everywhere which makes its monitoring especially in food producing animals possible.(Fearnley, 2022) Several pathogenic strains of E. coli are known to be resistant to a number of antibiotics. However, there is limited data on antimicrobial profiles of Escherichia coli isolates from Ugandan livestock and farmers. We, therefore, conducted this cross-sectional study to determine the prevalence of E. coli AMR among humans, cattle and the associated predisposing factors in agro-pastoral farming systems of Kamuli and Isingiro districts of Uganda, as both of these districts are located within the cattle corridor. A total of 284 fecal samples were collected from both animals and humans in the study areas, followed by bacterial isolation and antimicrobial susceptibility tests on nine antimicrobial drugs from (Oxoid; Basingstoke, in the United Kingdom) i.e ciprofloxacin (5μg), gentamycin (10 μg), tetracycline (30 μg), amoxicillin (25μg), vancomycin (30μg), ampicillin (10μg), erythromycin (15μg), metronidazole (10μg), and penicillin-g (10μg). Selected farmers who kept animals and drug shop owners were interviewed using a structured questionnaire in the kobo collect application to assess the associated predisposing factors of AMR. The collected data were analyzed using STATA. Bacterial isolation was performed on all fecal samples. From these, antimicrobial sensitivity tests were carried out on 119 viable E. coli isolates (62 (52.10%) were of animal origin while 57(47.9%) were human fecal samples). Overall, 96.98% of the E. coli isolates had developed resistance against at least one antimicrobial agent used in this study. Probably due to the high level of abuse of antimicrobial drugs among farmers. Generally, ciprofloxacin and gentamycin, were highly effective against E. coli isolates from both cattle and humans, whereas the isolates were resistant (100%) against vancomycin and metronidazole. Therefore, vancomycin and Metronidazole are not effective against E. coli isolates as shown by the 100% resistance to both drugs in both humans and cattle. I would recommend the use of ciprofloxacin and gentamicin as these had a high susceptibility. Rational use of antimicrobial products by all stakeholders should be practiced.
Antimicrobial resistance surveillance: a case study of escherichia coli isolates from selected chicken farms in Masaka City, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2023-09) Wakulira, Stephen Lubega

The increasing field reports of apparent antimicrobial resistance and resulting treatment failures in poultry farms, that were not supported by scientific evidence was the impetus for this study on chicken farms in Masaka City. The study recruited 50 chicken farms from which 280 samples were collected to investigate the antibiograms, genetic drivers and risk factors associated with development of antimicrobial resistance among E. coli. The E. coli isolates were subjected to a panel of six antibiotics including ampicillin (10μg), neomycin (30μg), Gentamycin (30μg); tetracycline (30μg), ciprofloxacin (30μg); and potentiated Sulphonamides [trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (1.25/ 23.75μg)]. The highest level of resistance was recorded against Tetracycline and Sulphonamides at 76% and 74%, respectively. The E. coli isolates demonstrated the highest susceptibility (96%) to gentamycin (CN). Conventional and multiplex PCRs were run on the E. coli isolates to screen for genes that code for Tetracycline (Tet M, O, & K) and Sulphonamide (Sul-1 & Sul-2) resistances respectively. All isolates were negative for the tetracycline resistance at genotypic level. Only three (3) and four (4) isolates were positive for the Sul 1 & 2 genes respectively. The prophylactic use of antibiotics as an intervention against disease occurrence was 2.02 times responsible for causation of AMR on chicken farms. To the contrary, farms where antibiotics were only prudently used during disease outbreaks had less chances of AMR occurrence. This association was significant at odds of 0.21 and a p-value of 0.002. Therefore, when used appropriately amidst outbreaks, antibiotics are protective against development of AMR on farms as opposed to other concoctions such as herbs. Furthermore, farms that kept < 500 chickens were 3.63 times more at risk of experiencing E. coli resistance compared to farms that had flocks of over 1000 chickens. At adjusted odds ratio of 3.63 and 95% confidence interval of 1.16 to 11.31, this association was statistically significant at p-value 0.027. In conclusion, the findings are indicative of a likely bigger challenge in Masaka city. Therefore, there is a need for regular AMU on-farm monitoring, use of available laboratory diagnostics in addition to further in-depth studies as regards AMR on chicken farms.
Antimicrobial resistance, molecular epidemiology and farmer dynamics associated with salmonella infections in indigenous poultry in North Central Nigeria

(Makerere University, 2025) Sati, Nancy Milton

Salmonella serovars are globally known to cause diseases in animals and humans. This study sought to evaluate farmers’ perceptions and practices about Salmonella infections, identify and characterize the serovars circulating in indigenous poultry and their drinking water sources in North Central Nigeria. aimed at having targeted control measures. A total of 1,208 samples comprising of poultry faeces (n=1,108) and water (n=100) from 15 markets were collected and processed using ISO 6579:2002 protocols. Using the disk diffusion method, thirteen antimicrobials were used in antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Whole genome sequencing, traditional and molecular serotyping methods were used to characterize the isolates. Across 54 villages in North Central Nigeria, 419 farmer interviews were conducted using a structured e-questionnaire and data was analysed and associations were made between variables. About 6.5% (78/1,208) of the samples were positive for Salmonella, with 60.3% (47/78) susceptibility to all the antimicrobials used and 14.1% (11/78) being multi-drug-resistant phenotypes. Serotyping and whole genome sequencing carried out on 56.4% (44/78) of the isolates identified 23 serovars and 21 antimicrobial resistance genes. Multilocus sequence typing using 7 housekeeping gene loci identified 12 novel sequence types. Cluster analysis from 3255 loci using INNUENDO cgMLST showed close relatedness among isolates from different sources in the same location. Farmer interviews revealed 89.3% (p-value =0.001) of farmers were not aware of Salmonella infections in poultry while 94.5%, (p-value= 0.01) were unaware that Salmonella infections are zoonotic. This study has revealed diverse, pansusceptible and rare Salmonella serovars in indigenous poultry and the water they drink, highlighted farmers’ low awareness of Salmonella, and identified AMR genes, novel sequence types, and genetic relatedness among the isolates. This study calls for improved surveillance and farmer education regarding Salmonella infections so as to enhance poultry health and productivity, as well as reduce public health threats.
Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of escherichia coli isolates from livestock and predisposing factors to antimicrobial resistance in Isingiro and Kamuli Districts, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2024-11) Oyirwoth, Osborn

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health challenge to human and animal population. Increase in livestock population coupled with intensive husbandry practices has greatly resulted into increased utilization of antimicrobial products in the management of livestock diseases. This was a cross-sectional study conducted between August and November 2022 in 183 and 87 randomly selected livestock keeping households in Kamuli and Isingiro Districts respectively; to determine the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Escherichia coli isolates from livestock. Fresh fecal samples collected from rectum of each cattle, goats, and cloacal swab from chicken were placed in Stuart Transport medium and taken to College of Veterinary medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity public health laboratory for processing. Escherichia coli culture and isolation was done using chromocult selective media. This was followed by antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) by the Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method. A total of fecal samples was collected. However, 683 fecal samples were collected from which 572 E. coli isolates were obtained. These were 191 (33.1%) from cattle, 200 (35.0%) from goats and 181 (31.6%) from chicken. Only samples from which E. coli was isolated were subjected to AST. The study revealed that E. coli isolates exhibited variation in susceptibility with highest susceptibility 97.5% to kanamycin, and resistance 79.8% to tetracycline. Correct farmers’ knowledge of AMR, human sharing water sources with livestock and open field disposal of animal wastes and use of trained veterinarians were significant predictors of AMR. Evidence of the high prevalence of AMR documented here provides a baseline for the need of further surveillance and call for urgent implementation of mitigation strategies to combat this public health challenge in line with the Uganda AMR National action plan.
Antimicrobial susceptibility profile of klebsiella species associated with mastitis in cattle from Ssembabule District, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2022-12-30) Asiimwe, Ismail

Mastitis is one of the major burdens affecting the dairy sector lowering both the quality and quantity of milk. In an attempt to manage or prevent mastitis, farmers have resorted to frequent and irrational use of antimicrobial drugs that have resulted in the development of resistance to some of the frequently used antimicrobials. This study aimed to establish the prevalence of Klebsiella spp. in mastitis cases and the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of the isolates. A total of 224 lactating cows in selected herds were examined for both clinical and subclinical mastitis. Screening for subclinical mastitis was done using the California Mastitis Test (CMT) while that of clinical mastitis was through clinical examination. Milk from CMT positive cases were taken to the laboratory for bacteriological analysis. Klebsiella spp. were isolated and then identified by morphological and biochemical tests. The antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of Klebsiella isolates were determined using Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in the 224 cows screened was 47.39% and that of Klebsiella spp. was 39.1%. Almost all the Klebsiella isolates (95.56%) were resistant to Erythromycin, while most of the isolates (84.44%) were sensitive to Gentamycin. The isolates exhibited variable susceptibility to Ceftriaxone, Cotrimoxazole, Meropenem, Tetracycline, Ceftazidime, Cefepime and imipenem; and over four isolates demonstrated multiple drug resistance. Among Gram-negative bacteria, Klebsiella spp. potentially causes bovine mastitis and exhibited resistance to some of the commonly used antimicrobials in livestock and dairy production systems. There was high prevalence of Klebsiella spp. isolated from milk samples of bovine mastitis cases, with highest resistance demonstrated against antimicrobial classes of Macrolide followed by third generation Cephalosporin and then Tetracyclines. Highest susceptibility was exhibited for aminoglycoside followed by carbapenems. Farmers are encouraged to regularly screen their lactating cows for mastitis so that the infected are given early treatment. Then veterinary practitioners are required to conduct antimicrobial susceptibility testing to guide the choice of drug for appropriate treatment.
Antimicrobial use in pig production and its associated risk factors in Wakiso District, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2023-11) Musiitwa, Rogers

The high use of antimicrobials in food animals such as pigs raises concerns about food safety, security, trade and market access for livestock and livestock products. The study determined the prevalence of antimicrobial use in pig production and its associated risk factors in Wakiso district, Uganda. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Wakiso district, Uganda between August and October 2022. It involved the use of mixed methods design to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from pig farmers and veterinary workers. The quantitative data was collected from 409 households in Kakiri, Kyengera, and Kasanje Town Council, Wakiso district. Three Key Informant Interviews and three Focus Group Discussions were conducted with the veterinary workers and pig farmers respectively. Quantitative data was analysed using STATA 14 and qualitative data analysed thematically using NVIVO 12 pro software. The majority of the respondents were females (65.3%) with at least 91.7% of the respondents had completed the primary level of education. Out of the surveyed households, 94.1% (385/409) had used antimicrobials in pig production in the past six months to the time of study. Most of the respondents (94.8%) who used antimicrobials obtained them from veterinary workers or pharmacies. The common antimicrobials used by pig farmers were; Sulphonamides, tetracyclines, penicillin and streptomycin, gentamicin, and amoxicillin. Qualitative results showed that pig farmers were also using extra label drugs such as Paracetamol, Antiretroviral drugs, and Ampicillin in pig production. Vaccination of pigs (6.9 odds ratio), farmers’ knowledge on antimicrobials and antimicrobial use (3.2 odds ratio), and people freely accessing the pig farms (2.6 odds ratio) were all associated with high antimicrobial use in pig production in Wakiso district. Qualitative results also emphasized that farmers with high knowledge on antimicrobials were more likely to use antimicrobials in pig production than their counterparts. The study found a high use of antimicrobials in pig production among the study households of Wakiso district. Therefore, there is a need for farmers to improve the biosecurity measures on their farms to reduce the risks of diseases and thus reduce the need for antimicrobials. Sensitization should also be done to create a positive attitude among farmers to use antimicrobials only when necessary.

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