Roaming dogs in Uganda : Dog ownership practices, public health implications, community attitudes and control strategies in selected urban and rural settings

Abstract

Roaming dogs are ubiquitous in Ugandan communities, causing bites, nuisance, road accidents, and transmitting diseases. The lack of comprehensive research on roaming dogs hinders evidence-based intervention strategies. This study, using a mixed-methods design, aimed to generate baseline data to inform control strategies for roaming dogs in Uganda. Two cross-sectional surveys were conducted: one with 1,006 dog owners to assess ownership practices contributing to roaming, and another with 3,307 community members to evaluate attitudes toward roaming dogs. A case series documented bite incidents involving roaming dogs. Metagenomic sequencing of blood samples from roaming dogs, stratified by levels of wildlife contact, was performed to identify circulating viruses. Lastly, a quasi-experimental assessment of annual sterilization campaigns in Wakiso District evaluated community uptake and population-level effects. From this study, 65.2% of owned dogs were found to roam freely. The significant factors associated with roaming were dog owners having no perimeter fence to confine their dogs (P=0.001) and living in rural areas (P=0.03), where people live communally and prefer live fences to perimeter fencing. Once roaming, dogs were largely perceived negatively by 90.8% of rural and 77.3% of urban residents. The main reasons for the negativity were fear of dog bites and disease transmission (81.8%), and nuisance (76.3%). Notably, 57.1% of the respondents expressed empathy toward roaming dogs. Positive attitudes were more common among individuals from religious or higher socioeconomic backgrounds. Metagenomic analysis of blood samples from roaming dogs identified 46 novel viruses. Viral prevalence, richness, and abundance were significantly higher in dogs that hunted or fed on wildlife (p < 0.001). Detected viruses belonged primarily to the genera Orbivirus (family Sedoreoviridae), Protoparvovirus (family Parvoviridae), and Anelloviruses. Case investigations revealed that dog–human conflicts arose mainly from rabid dog rampages, predatory attacks on livestock, and direct human confrontations. Most bites, 100% to humans and 75% to animals, occurred during rampages; notably, one rabid dog was responsible for 37 bite incidents, the highest number ever reported globally. Over three years, 204 sterilization surgeries were conducted, with community participation increasing from 28% in the first year to 60% in the third. This intervention corresponded with a decline in roaming dog prevalence from 34.8% to 18.3%. Overall, the findings demonstrate that roaming dogs pose a significant risk of bite injuries, particularly during rabies outbreaks. Moreover, dogs interacting with wildlife may facilitate bidirectional viral transmission of diseases of public health importance. Controlling roaming dogs seems feasible through sustained sterilization programs, as demonstrated by the observed population decline and rising community uptake. For enduring success, however, these efforts must be scaled nationally and integrated with multifaceted strategies: (i) community education to foster responsible ownership and curb abandonment; (ii) revision of the outdated Stray Animals Act of 1922; (iii) enactment of modern policies on dog breeding, registration, and confinement; and (iv) robust enforcement mechanisms. This holistic, multisectoral approach is essential to eliminate roaming dogs, mitigate zoonotic risks, and advance public health and animal welfare in Uganda.