School of Food Technology, Nutrition and Bioengineering (SFTNB)

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    Assessing the effect of irrigation water management strategies on napier production
    (Makerere University, 202-12) Ntege, Ivan
    Complexity of crop responses to water has led to exploration of empirical crop production functions in yield estimations. There is paucity of information on Napier production response to different irrigation water management strategies. The main objective of the study was to assess the suitability of using biophysical models in predicting fodder yield responses to different irrigation water management strategies as a contribution to sustainable intensification on fodder production in Uganda. Specifically, this study aimed at assessing soil moisture variations due to different irrigation levels under Napier production. Secondly, to determine the response of Napier dry matter (DM) yields (ton/ha) to different irrigation regimes. Lastly, to predict Napier yield response under rainfed, full irrigation, and deficit irrigation using DSSAT-CANEGRO model. The study area was located at Mbarara Zonal Agricultural Research Development Institute (MbaZARDI)). Experimental data for three growth cycles on canopy cover (%), DM yields, irrigation amounts (mm) and soil characteristics were utilized in model calibration and validation. Results indicated that nearly 80% of the sensitive parameters were observed to be related to growth and the rest to phenology. PARCEMAX which accounted for about 78% of DM yield variability had the highest sensitive index. TDELAY emerged with a sensitivity index of 0.64 on canopy height. Based on calibrated model performance, predicted and measured values were in accord with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 10.314 ton/ha, coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.76 and Wilmott agreement (d-index) of 0.764. Potential Napier DM yields at harvest were underestimated in the range of 2.33 - 5.94%. Under predicted Napier DM yields ranged between 10.97 – 38.76 ton/ha whereas canopy height ranged between 1.92 –2.86 m. Under dry conditions, it is economically viable for dairy farmers to adopt ensilage of Napier at 30% DM yields (28 days after planting). Accumulated harmful nitrates during drought are also reduced through fermentation in silage. Therefore, DSSAT illustrated it’s appropriateness in pre-season decision-making on cropping patterns and irrigation management strategies.
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    Food safety legislations in international trade: The obstacles for the export the export of aquaculture products
    (Makerere University, 2008) Bagumire, Ananias
    The world market for fish and fishery products is expanding, while wild stocks are declining. The gap created between rising demand and the dwindling supply has to be filled by aquaculture production, most of which are expected to come from enterprises in developing countries. This means opportunities exist for developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa like Uganda which can learn from their Asian counterparts how to promote and target aquaculture exports to markets in the European Union (EU), United States and other industrialised regions. However, consumers in industrialised countries have demanded increased food safety controls because of heightened concern over food safety risks. In response, market authorities have imposed strict requirements for industry and governments in exporting nations to institute risk-based food safety control systems to safe guard the health of the consumers. Developing countries which do not implement risk-based food controls in the entire food chain risk to be denied access to prime markets for fish and fishery products in the world. Uganda has progressed in developing risk-based food controls to facilitate trade in fishery products from capture sources with her trade partners in developed countries. But with fears that the capture sources may not be sustainable due to many factors including overfishing, Uganda is developing a commercial aquaculture industry that targets both the export and local markets. To this end, Uganda needs to develop risk-based food control systems that meet the requirements of developed-country markets to facilitate trade in aquaculture products. The study was aimed at identifying the international food safety regulatory requirements that are applied in trade of aquaculture products and to assess the status of compliance of Uganda’s aquaculture food safety systems against those requirements. By examining 10 representative commercial fish farms in Uganda, the potential for food hazards at critical control points (CCPs) in aquaculture production chain was assessed using international principles based on Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP). In addition, the farms were evaluated in respect of food safety control measures applied to the main CCPs, on-farm traceability measures, policy, legal and certification requirements, and use of written on farm standard operating procedures which are a pre-requisite for Good Aquaculture Practices (GAqPs) among others were evaluated for compliance with international recommendations. Thirty eight samples of the potential aquaculture export products (20 for Nile tilapia and 18 African catfish, typically two randomly selected fish for each species from each farm) were obtained from the 10 representative farms. The international regulated chemical contaminants in the sampled fish (14 organochlorine pesticides, total polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs] and the heavy metals of mercury, cadmium and lead) were determined in the laboratory using Accelerated Fat Extraction and Electron Capture Gas Chromatography and Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectroscopy respectively, and compared with the international Maximum Residue Levels (MRLs) applied in the EU and the US markets. Also, the National Food Control System (NFCS) comprising of national legislation used to regulate aquaculture production, the government competent authority for aquaculture products, inspection services and laboratory testing services, were evaluated for their compliance with international requirements for guaranteeing safety of aquaculture products. The findings clearly indicate that the Ugandan aquaculture chain has potential food safety risks from the biological and chemical food hazards associated with fertilizing the fish ponds using animal manure, hygiene in the production of fish feeds, uncontrolled storage and movement of chemical products at the farm, the uncontrolled movement of animals, potential predators of fish and trespassers within the farm premises. The study showed that food safety control measures applied at the CCPs in aquaculture chain did not comply fully with international recommendations. On the scale of 0 to 5 where zero denotes total non-compliance, and 5 full compliance, the food safety control measures at all the CCPs had an average score of 3 indicating some limited compliance which occurred in some CCPs but lacked in others. Most non compliances occurred in CCPs of feed storage facilities and feed processing areas. The aquaculture chain in Uganda lacked traceability for fish products and feeds, with no evidence of implementation of written (SOPs) where they existed. With regard to chemical residues, the aquaculture products complied with the MRLs applied in the EU and the US markets for organochlorine pesticides, PCBs, mercury and cadmium. One sample (n=38) appeared to exceed the MRL for lead although traces of lead residues were detected in all samples. Traces of mercury were also detected in 82% and cadmium in 5.3% of the samples. There was no significant difference in residue levels of lead and mercury for Nile Tilapia and African cat fish, but more samples of African Catfish contaminated than Nile Tilapia. PCBs were not detected in any of the samples. Traces of DDE, a metabolite of DDT [ranging between 0.0012ppm - 0.035ppm against the MRL of 5.0ppm], were detected in 26.3% (n=38) of the fish samples. Traces of endosulfan sulfate and DDT [0.002ppm for each] were detected in one sample. Apart from two samples of Nile Tilapia which were containing DDE, the rest of the pesticides were detected in African catfish indicating that African catfish is more prone to contamination compared to Nile Tilapia. Assessment of the National Food Control System for aquaculture revealed that the current requirements for guaranteeing safety for aquaculture products to the markets were generally not complied with, and, therefore, the aquaculture products might be denied access to the markets or rejected at points of entry, due to failure to comply with basic official control requirements. On a score scale of 0 - 5 (with 0 indicating lack of compliance and 5 indicating full compliance) the most affected components which were the national food legislation (the Fish (Aquaculture) Rules 2003), and the Department of Fisheries Resources (DFR) - that hosts inspection services for aquaculture products (Aquaculture and Quality assurance units), scored 1.52 and 1.73 respectively. DFR as competent authority scored 2.2. The laboratory services had a score of 3.3 on average indicating better performance since they already carry out tests for official control of capture fishery products that can similarly test aquaculture products. The average score for all the four components was 2.2. Although the low performance of food safety controls for aquaculture products in Uganda should be understood in light of the fact that commercial aquaculture is still in infancy stages; with food controls having just been initiated by both government and industry, the implication of this low performance is that Uganda needs to invest more resources to establish appropriate food safety controls for aquaculture products as was done for fishery products to meet the requirements of export markets. The development and implementation of risk-based food controls for capture fishery products led to Uganda’s fishery products being accepted in developed country markets. To do so effectively and in a timely manner will require a thorough review of the aquaculture legislation to focus the regulatory enforcement in the aquaculture sector for both fish and fish feed to meet appropriate food safety and consumer protection standards. Specifically, future studies should focus on understanding the potential sources of lead and residues of DDE, a metabolite of DDT, in light of government push to control mosquitoes that spread malaria with DDT.
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    Safety assessment of cystatins used to control pests in transgenic bananas in Uganda.
    (Makerere University, 2009) Matovu, Moses
    In this study the safety of the maize and papaya cystatins used to controls nematodes and banana weevil borer was assessed by determining the allergenicity and toxicity of the proteins using both in vitro as well as the in vivo method of oral gavage using albino rats. The maize and papaya cystatins were expressed in Esherechia coli strain M15 since this organism is easily cultured. Determination of in vitro digestive assays for both cystatins as well oral feeding of the animals with the cystatins in various concentrations of 10mg, 100mg and 1000mg/kg body weight was carried out followed by sacrificing the animals on the seventh day for clinical and histopathological examination of the blood and animal organs. The results indicate that the maize and papaya cystatins were fully expressed in the E.coli M15 and E.coli M15 culture grew well to produce enough protein. The two proteins rapidly degraded in the simulated gastric fluid taking less than 2 minutes to degrade in the pepsin. The maize and papaya cystatins had amino acid sequence similarity with Actinidia deliciosa a kiwi fruit of 48.3% and 40.4% respectively over their full length, suggesting that both cystatins are not potential allergens. The results of the amino acid sequence homology comparison with the known toxins in the database did not indicate any relatives, suggesting that these cystatins are not potential toxins. The feed intake data showed that the maize and papaya cystatins did not affect feed intake of the animals. The results of urinalysis, haematology, serum chemistry and organ weights showed that feeding the rats with acute doses of maize and papaya cystatins did not affect the liver and kidneys which play a big role in various metabolic processes. This study shows that the maize and papaya cystatins used to control pests in transgenic bananas in Uganda do not have allergenic and toxic effects. These cystatins may therefore be safely used in transgenic bananas to resist nematodes and weevils.
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    Selected physico-chemical properties of traditionally processed orange-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomea batatus, L. Lam).
    (Makerere University, 2009) Bamwirire, David
    The objective of the study was to determine the effect of traditional preparation and processing techniques on selected physico-chemical properties of two orange-fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) varieties. Proximate composition, colour parameters (L*, a* and b*), texture and pro-vitamin A carotenoids were determined. Colour parameters, pro-vitamin A carotenoid content and texture were determined using a colorimeter, spectrophotometer and a rheometer respectively. Significant differences (p<0.05) within the two OFSP varieties and between two districts for both physico-chemicals and pro-vitamin A carotenoid contents were noted. The carotenoid contents ranged from 26-31 mg/100 g (Ejumula) and 12-19 mg/100 g (SPK 004) respectively. Highest pro-vitamin A carotenoid contents were found in Ejumula and SPK 004 from Soroti. Although substantial losses (p<0.05) of the carotenoids occurred during processing (8 – 39%), high carotenoid retention levels (p<0.05) in boiled (66 – 92 %) and steamed (60 – 84 %) Ejumula and SPK 004 samples respectively, were registered. Higher carotenoid retention occurred in steamed (60 – 84 %) and boiled (79 – 92 %) OFSP samples from Luwero compared to those from Soroti (61 – 84 %) respectively. Sun-drying reduced (p<0.05) the pro-vitamin A carotenoids of OFSP in both locations. Generally, hunter values weakly and negatively correlated with pro-vitamin Acarotenoids (r = -0.2, -0.2, 0.1; p = 0.05) for the degree of lightness and redness while a very weak positive correlation (r = 0.1; p = 0.05) was observed for the degree of yellowness in the raw samples. The L* colour parameter (lightness) had a moderately weaker positive correlation (r = 0.4) with pro-vitamin A carotenoid content in the cooked samples. Despite the high pro-vitamin A carotenoid losses (up to 39 %), the boiled and steamed OFSP products from ejumula could adequately provide the recommended daily vitamin A amounts mainly for children less than six years. But the sun-dried-based products in both varieties may not sufficiently provide this RDA for vitamin A for this age group. These findings are vital for various stakeholders for maximum exploitation of the potential for OFSP and other food stuffs to provide sufficiently the nutrients needed by various age groups.
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    Comparison of food insecurity between HIV/AIDS affected households on food assistance and those not on food assistance in Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2009-11) Kyampaire, Apophia Karen
    Food insecurity is an important factor that may affect nutrition status of individuals in the household. HIV/AIDS impedes the food security of affected people drastically decreasing the labor, income, assets, food reserves, savings, information exchange, institutional support, and community safety nets available to affected households. In an effort to strengthen food and nutritional security in households affected by HIV/AIDS, food assistance programs have been in operation for years now, even in Uganda. Little has been documented about the suitability of the targeting criteria used for selecting food assistance beneficiaries. The objective of this study was to determine factors associated with food insecurity among households affected by HIV/AIDS in Uganda with a view of recommending criteria for recruitment of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) into food assistance programs. A cross-sectional study was performed among The AIDS Support Organization (TASO) Mbarara clients’ households in selected final distribution points (FDPs) in Bushenyi and Mbarara Districts; Title II HIV/AIDS initiative program implementing partner (IPs) which has the largest number of food aid HIV clients in the country. From a sampling frame of households meeting the selection criteria, a total of 301 households: 153 on food assistance and 148 not on food assistance were selected. These were interviewed to determine household demographic, socio-economic, and food production and consumption information. Food insecurity was evaluated using the fourteen Food and Agriculture Technical Assistance (FANTA) standardized household food insecurity scale model questions that determine the household food insecurity scale score (HFISS). There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the two household categories in mean age, level of education, occupation, household size, dependence ratio, type of housing, food sources and production, access to water sources, and asset ownership. The food assisted households had a significantly larger number of orphan and vulnerable children (OVCs) than the non-food assisted (p<0.001). The food assisted had significantly more female household heads than non-food assisted (p<0.001). Correlation analysis showed no significant difference (p>0.05) in HFISS between food assisted and non-food assisted households. However, on categorizing the households into three food insecurity categories, there was an overall significant difference in food insecurity status between the household groups (p=0.037). The significant difference (p=0.01) between the household groups was in the moderately food insecure category but not in the other two categories of food insecurity. Overall, 21% of households included in the study were found to be food secure, 42% moderately food insecure, and 37% severely food insecure. On the contrary, the food assisted households were found to have a more diverse diet compared to their counterparts (p=0.039). The difference was attributed to additional nutrition training food aid beneficiaries received at FDPs and the frequent snacking by food beneficiaries using the food assistance commodities. High levels of food insecurity were found to be associated with low attendance of health and nutrition talks (p<0.001), low number of meals eaten in previous 24 hours (p<0.001), low socio-economic status of the household (p=0.029), and low variety of crops the household grew (p=0.005). Unlike in other studies, high attendance of HIV/AIDS awareness seminars (p=0.039), one to one counseling sessions (p=0.003), and high household livestock units were found to be associated with high food insecurity levels. The results of this study also show that the criteria currently used to recruit beneficiaries into food assistance programs do not identify the most food insecure HIV/AIDS affected households. Programs seeking to provide food assistance in the context of HIV/AIDS should explore targeting criteria that include a mixture of socio-demographic and food insecurity/vulnerability variables if they are to select the most vulnerable. More research is needed to establish how to enhance food security among households of PLWHA and whether factors associated with food insecurity among HIV/AIDS affected households and general population are similar.
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    Safety, preparation and handling practices of street-vended foods in selected districts of Uganda.
    (Makerere University, 2009-12) Nayiga, Leontina
    This study aimed at investigating the safety, preparation and handling practices of street- vended foods in three districts in Uganda namely Kampala, Jinja and Masaka using a cross-sectional study. Structured questionnaires were used to determine the nature, types, preparation methods, personal hygiene and hygiene of premises. Samples of randomly selected street-vended food were obtained to analyse for microbes and heavy metals. The data from the survey was described and analysed using SPSS statistical package version 16.0. Relationships among study variables were established using chi-square test (p≤ 0.05). Characteristics and preparation methods of street-vended food were studied in the three districts. The response rate was Kampala (83), Jinja (72) and Masaka (70). The majority (>85 %) of the vendors were female irrespective of district. Majority (>50%) of the vendors in Kampala and Jinja were trained in sanitary practices and concepts, conversely, in Masaka the highest number 24 (34.3%). trained vendors had been taught how to run a business All vendors in the study districts used tap water, with the exception of a few vendors in Masaka that used rain water (1.4%) and spring water (1.4%). The vendors’ main criterion for choice of food ingredients was customer preference. Use of head load was the popular means of transporting raw food for preparing at vending sites in the districts. Masaka had the highest proportion of vendors 16 (22.9%) who lacked knowledge about diarrhoea. The common street-vended foods encountered were plantain and starchy roots, tubers, cereals, legumes, meat/animal products, beverages, and vegetables. Results showed that 21/40 (52.5%) of the types of street-vended foods studied were not significantly different (p >0.05) among the study districts. Methods of cooking 37/61 (60.7%) street-vended foods were not significantly different (p >0.05) among the study districts. Microbial analysis for Total Plate Count, and counts for Staphylococcus aureus, Faecal coliforms, E.coli, B.cereus, Campylobacter spp and Psuedomonas spp was done. Classification of food as unsafe i.e risk of transmitting pathogenic bacteria was based on established Uganda Standards/limits. Relationships between microbial counts across selected districts were established using one sample t-test. (p ≤ 0.05). Microbial results clearly showed that Jinja district had street-vended foods with the highest concentration of microbial contaminants. Overall, the cooked street vended foods from Jinja were potentially capable of causing staphylococcal food poisoning except rice (2.59±0.63 log10 cfu/g), matooke (2.88±1.67 log10 cfu/g) and boiled drinking water (1.91±2.70 log10 cfu/ml). B.cereus, Campylobacter sp and Pseudomonas sp in the street-vended food were less than 1 log10 cfu/g (ml) thus food borne illness from these microbes is minimal. Microbial quality of 13/18 (72.2%) street vended food did not vary significantly (p>0.05) among the selected districts. Use water had the least number of viable microbes, Kampala (1.22±3.15 log10 cfu/ml), Jinja (1.60±0.42 log10 cfu/ml), and Masaka (<1 log10 cfu/ml). S.aureus was more commonly isolated on serving surfaces, (with concentrations above 3 log10 cfu/cm2in all the three districts and Masaka (3.32±1.01 log10 cfu/cm2)). Faecal coliform counts were highest on swabs from hands of vendor in both Jinja (2.90±0.29 log10 cfu/cm2) and Masaka (3.42±0.60 log10 cfu/ cm2). Escherichia coli counts were prevalent in final rinse dish water from Kampala (2.25±0 log10 cfu/ml) and Jinja (1.42±0.2 log10 cfu/ml). Occurrence of B.cereus, Campylobacter sp and Pseudomonas sp on hands, utensils, surfaces and in water was not common i.e less than 1 log10 cfu/g (ml). Heavy metal analysis for Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, and Ni was done. Classification of food as having a risk of heavy metals was based on established standards/limits. Relationships between heavy metal concentrations across selected districts were established using one sample t-test (p≤ 0.0.05). Concentrations of Cd, Zn, and Cu in bean sauce were significantly different (p<0.05) among the districts. Results revealed levels of cadmium and lead to be above the recommended maximum limits in foods that get in direct contact with the cooking pans/utensils. For example bean sauce had high levels of lead for Kampala (9.4ppm) and Masaka (9.7ppm). The cooking pans/utensils were obtained from doubtable sources hence the likely source of heavy metals. Nickel was not detected in any samples. Less than 50% (16/36) of the correlations between faults in food handling that reduce microbial safety of food and faults that reduce personal hygiene of vendor were significant positive correlations. However, this does not mean that there is no relationship between food handling practices that reduce microbial safety of food and personal hygiene of vendor. Street-vended foods are here to stay, not only in Kampala, Jinja and Masaka districts of Uganda but in Uganda as a whole and internationally, but majority i.e. over 50% are unsafe. Stakeholders in the street food vending business who include governments, street-food vendors and consumers should immediately take the necessary procedures to improve the safety of street-vended foods. Key words: street food vendors, street-vended foods, microbiological safety, heavy metal safety
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    Effect of supplementation with zinc, zinc plus, vitamin A and iron on nutritional status of school children (6-10 years) in Uganda: A randomized controlled study
    (Makerere University, 2010) Asiimwe, Charles
    Background: The nutritional status for the school-aged child is largely unknown. Unlike for children under five years of age, few studies have been conducted the age group of 6-10 years. Hence there is a paucity of information regarding this age group in many developing countries except Latin America where work shows that stunting is common in school age children. However, it is important to note that children under five years of age who are malnourished grow up into under nourished school aged children, adolescents and mothers, forming the vicious cycle of malnutrition. There is limited research on zinc nutrition among school children in developing countries. However a few studies have been conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing countries to assess the effect of zinc supplementation on children‟s health and development. These trials have produced variable results, depending on the specific outcomes considered and the initial characteristics of the children who were enrolled. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the effect of supplementation with zinc alone or zinc in combination with vitamin A and iron on serum zinc and nutritional status of children (6-10 years) living in a semi-urban setting of Wakiso District in central Uganda. Methodology: Children (aged 6-10 years) selected from three day primary schools in Wakiso District were randomly allocated to three treatment groups in a randomized longitudinal controlled experimental design. Serum zinc, weight, height and MUAC were measured at baseline and after four school terms of supplementation. The study subjects received daily for four school terms 300mls of juice containing Zinc alone (group 1), Zinc plus Vitamin A and Iron (group 2) or fresh juice without any supplement added (control). Serum zinc was measured by AAS method (Smith et al., 1979). Nutritional status of children before and after supplementation was classified as per WHO growth standards (WHO, 2006). Results: Average height was 122.64 ± 8.70 cm, weight was 23.57 ± 4.23 kg, mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) was 17.26 ± 1.57 cm, Z-score for height for age (HAZ) was -0.67±1.23 and weight for age (WAZ) was -0.53 ±0.86. Eight percent of the children were stunted, 5% underweight and 2% wasted at baseline. There was a significant difference in weight (2.50  1.13kg, P= 0.03), MUAC (0.90  0.41cm, P= 0.03) and BMI (0.79  0.37kg/m2, P = 0.03) among zinc supplemented subjects compared to control at the end. Changes in HAZ, WAZ and BMIAZ among the zinc and control groups were not significantly different. Supplementation with zinc plus vitamin A and iron did not significantly change nutritional status of the children given a supplement compared to control. Supplementation with zinc alone or zinc plus vitamin A and iron did not improve the nutritional status of children (6-10 years). The mean serum zinc concentration at baseline was 94.96  26.70 g/dL. The level of zinc deficiency was 7% among primary school children in this study at baseline.There was a slight increase of about 2 g/dL in serum zinc concentration for primary school children who were supplemented with zinc alone. There was no significant difference between the mean serum zinc in zinc group compared to control (P= 0.22). There was a slight decrease of about 2 g/dL in serum zinc concentration for primary school children who were supplemented with zinc plus vitamin A and iron. Supplementation with zinc alone or zinc plus vitamin A and iron did not result into improved serum zinc status of primary school children in the current study. Conclusion: Supplementation with zinc alone results in a significant improvement on weight, BMI and MUAC of primary school children. Supplementation with zinc alone did not improve serum zinc and nutritional status of primary school children in the study area. Supplementation with zinc plus vitamin A and iron did not improve serum zinc and nutritional status of primary school children in the current study. Recommendations: A national assessment needs to be undertaken by the ministry of education and health jointly to ascertain the true picture of zinc deficiency and nutritional status of primary school children in Uganda. A great deal of research is still needed regarding the effect of supplementation with zinc alone or zinc plus vitamin A and iron on school aged children‟s nutritional status and longer-term outcomes whether in school or not, urban or rural based.
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    Reliability of scored patient-generated subjective global assessment in determining nutritional status of HIV infected adults attending TASO Mulago Clinic
    (Makerere University, 2010-07) Mokori, Alex
    Background: Early identification of risk for malnutrition in people living with HIV (PLHIV) is needed so as to determine nutritional deficits and appropriate interventions. Malnutrition in many PLHIV in Uganda is frequently not assessed and is left untreated due to lack of reliable tools. Thus, reliable assessment tools are needed to accurately assess PLHIV at risk of malnutrition. PG-SGA is a potential tool that may serve this purpose in Uganda. It is an accepted tool for assessing nutritional status in cancer patients in developed countries. However, no studies have determined its reliability for assessing nutritional status in PLHIV. Objective: Determine reliability of PG-SGA in determining nutritional status of HIV-infected adults (18 to 67 years) who are not on antiretroviral therapy (ART). Method: A cross sectional study of HIV-infected adults who are not on ART in TASO, Mulago.Reliability (specificity and sensitivity) of PG-SGA in assessing risk for undernutrition was determined by comparing PG-SGA scores to BMI (a commonly used nutrition tool) using ROC curve. Reliability of PG-SGA in predicting immunosuppression was tested against CD4 counts. Results: Compared to BMI, PG-SGA correctly identified 69.2% underweight (BMI <18.5) and 57.1% normal participants (BMI ≥18.5), which shows PG-SGA scores can identify the risk of malnutrition among PLHIV. PG-SGA scores were negatively associated with BMI (r=-0.311, P=0.000) which confirms the ability of the tool to identify malnourished individuals. There was also a weak but significant association between PG-SGA scores with CD4 count (r=-0.221, P=0.002) indicating PG-SGA scores can predict risk to immunosuppression. PG-SGA scores were weakly but positively associated with infections (r =0.343, P=0.000) further confirming ability of the tool to predict immunosuppression. All PG-SGA Global Assessment categories significantly contributed to PG-SGA score and thus should be considered in PG-SGA. Of all socio-demographic factors, only years of education were associated with nutritional status indicated by PG-SGA scores (r = - 0.138, P=0.043). Conclusion: Compared to BMI, PG-SGA did not prove a reliable tool for assessing nutritional status of HIV-infected adults. However, the observed lack of reliability of PG-SGA does not invalidate it as rapid nutrition screening tool given BMI only considers weight and height. PG-SGA is thus useful in identifying individuals at risk for underweight and predicting immunosuppression especially where there is no objective equipment to determine nutritional status and CD4.
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    Reliability of scored patient-generated subjective global assessment in determining nutritional status of HIV infected adults attending TASO Mulago Clinic
    (Makerere University, 2010-07) Mokori, Alex
    Background: Early identification of risk for malnutrition in people living with HIV (PLHIV) is needed so as to determine nutritional deficits and appropriate interventions. Malnutrition in many PLHIV in Uganda is frequently not assessed and is left untreated due to lack of reliable tools. Thus, reliable assessment tools are needed to accurately assess PLHIV at risk of malnutrition. PG-SGA is a potential tool that may serve this purpose in Uganda. It is an accepted tool for assessing nutritional status in cancer patients in developed countries. However, no studies have determined its reliability for assessing nutritional status in PLHIV. Objective: Determine reliability of PG-SGA in determining nutritional status of HIV-infected adults (18 to 67 years) who are not on antiretroviral therapy (ART). Method: A cross sectional study of HIV-infected adults who are not on ART in TASO, Mulago.Reliability (specificity and sensitivity) of PG-SGA in assessing risk for undernutrition was determined by comparing PG-SGA scores to BMI (a commonly used nutrition tool) using ROC curve. Reliability of PG-SGA in predicting immunosuppression was tested against CD4 counts. Results: Compared to BMI, PG-SGA correctly identified 69.2% underweight (BMI <18.5) and 57.1% normal participants (BMI ≥18.5), which shows PG-SGA scores can identify the risk of malnutrition among PLHIV. PG-SGA scores were negatively associated with BMI (r=-0.311, P=0.000) which confirms the ability of the tool to identify malnourished individuals. There was also a weak but significant association between PG-SGA scores with CD4 count (r=-0.221, P=0.002) indicating PG-SGA scores can predict risk to immunosuppression. PG-SGA scores were weakly but positively associated with infections (r =0.343, P=0.000) further confirming ability of the tool to predict immunosuppression. All PG-SGA Global Assessment categories significantly contributed to PG-SGA score and thus should be considered in PG-SGA. Of all socio-demographic factors, only years of education were associated with nutritional status indicated by PG-SGA scores (r = - 0.138, P=0.043). Conclusion: Compared to BMI, PG-SGA did not prove a reliable tool for assessing nutritional status of HIV-infected adults. However, the observed lack of reliability of PG-SGA does not invalidate it as rapid nutrition screening tool given BMI only considers weight and height. PG-SGA is thus useful in identifying individuals at risk for underweight and predicting immunosuppression especially where there is no objective equipment to determine nutritional status and CD4.
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    Factors influencing the nutritional status of women of reproductive age in Erute internally displaced persons' camp, Lira District
    ( 2010-08) Agetta, Grace L. Komakech
    Introduction: More than 1.5 million Ugandans were displaced and lived in camps from 1996 to 2005. The camp conditions were associated with poor sanitary facilities, disease and malnutrition among women and children (WFP 2004). Objectives: to establish the underlying factors influencing the nutritional status of women of reproductive age in Erute Internally Displaced Persons (IDP) camp. Methods: A cross sectional survey involving non-pregnant and nonlactating women of reproductive age (15 - 49) was carried out in Erute IDP camp-Lira District, Northern Uganda (May-July 2005). Data was collected by structured, food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) and included socio-demographics, food security, dietary intake and nutrition knowledge. The nutritional status of women was assessed by anthropometric methods (weight, height, and mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) measurements). Results: A total of 224 women, most (60%) of whom were young (<25years) single or widowed (64%) had low levels of education (46.3%) and were of low socioeconomic status, were investigated. A significant proportion (48.7%) were underweight with a mean BMI of less than 18.5% while 3.5% were overweight and 1.0 % was obese. The mean MUAC among study women was 25.5  6.3) cm. Younger women were more likely to show low BMI and or MUAC compared to older women (p< 0.05). There was indication of inadequate dietary intake due to insufficient food available at the household level and consumption of calories from low cost staple foods. The main foods consumed by study women were; maize flour, beans, and vegetables. Corn-soy blend and vegetable oil were given by WFP on a 3 monthly basis. Conclusions: The nutrition status of IDW in Erute IDP camp was poor. Low socio-economic status, inadequate information/knowledge, poverty and low educational levels greatly undermined the women’s welfare and were key contributors to poor nutritional status. Recommendations: To improve the nutrition status of IDW in Erute IDP camp, interventions should target raising their socioeconomic status through providing information, education and alleviating poverty levels among IDW.
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    Optimization of biogas production from banana peels: Effect of particle size on methane yield
    (Makerere University, 2010-10) Tumutegyereize, Peter
    The cooking banana cultivars (matooke) in Uganda have so long been considered to have weak linkages to upstream processing. However, the work of the Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development (PIBID) has shown that upstream processing into other products is possible. PIBID in full scale processing however, would generate too much matooke associated waste (33% wastes per bunch) requiring a sustainable waste handling mechanism. Anaerobic digestion of this waste for biogas production was sought as a means of coupling products to by-products. Knowledge on the pretreatment of this waste was needed for effective anaerobic digestion. Thus, the need to assess the changes in the physicochemical characteristics of matooke peels under storage in affecting their potential for anaerobic digestion as well as the need to optimize particle size for optimum biogas production. Proximate and ultimate analyses were carried out on five banana peel cultivars after 1 day, 4 days and 7 days of peel storage at ambient conditions. Peels of one cultivar were reduced to 1mm, 5mm and 10mm particle sizes and the other four cultivar peels reduced to 1mm of particle size. Batch digesters of 100ml at 370C for 35 days of methane production with 400mg of samples were used. Peel storage pretreatment for utmost 4 days was found to bring the C/N ratio to the optimal range of 10-32 for anaerobic digestion. C/N ratio was also found to be cultivar dependent as it was significant at α=0.05 between the different banana cultivars. A model of methane content depending on particle size was developed. Plots of mean specific methane yield and methane content against particle size estimated an optimal particle size of 6.73mm for
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    Effect of vitamin A-mineral supplementation on serum retinol and overall nutritional status of school children aged 6-10 years in Wakiso District, Uganda: A randomized controlled trial
    (Makerere University, 2010-11) Mangusho, Gilbert
    Introduction: School aged children are faced by many nutritional problems including deficiencies of major micronutrients such as Vitamin A, Iron and Zinc. Vitamin A Deficiency is a public health problem in Uganda and efforts for its control have focused mainly on preschool children and lactating mothers but hardly on the school-age children. Supplementation is one way of improving the micronutrient status of children. Multiple-micronutrient supplementation is envisaged as one of the most cost-effective approaches to addressing the micronutrient problems in children. However, research in this area has been scanty. Overall Objective: To assess the effect of Supplementation with vitamin A and other micronutrients (Iron and Zinc) on serum retinol and the general nutritional status of school children (6–10 years). Study design: Primary schoolchildren (6-10 years) selected from three day primary Schools in Wakiso district were randomly allocated to two vitamin A-mineral supplementation groups: A (Vitamin A + Iron) and B (Vitamin A + iron + Zinc) in a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study design. Serum retinol, weight and height were the parameters monitored in four school terms (16 months). Treatment groups were tested for significance at p < 0.05. Results: Height for age and weight for age increased in all the groups. Body Mass Index for age increased only in the group that received vitamin A and iron without zinc (group A) but decreased in the others. These changes in nutritional status were, however, not significant. The level of stunting in group A (Vitamin A + Iron) remained at 9.5% while that in B (Vitamin A + Iron + Zinc) reduced from 9.8% to 0%. Underweight reduced by 50% in both groups A and B from 9.5% to 4.8% and 4.9% to 2.4% respectively, but increased by 33% in the control. Wasting on the other hand decreased from 4.8% to 2.4% in group A but increased in the other groups. There were significant increases in mean serum retinol in both groups A and B after supplementation but not in the control. Vitamin A Deficiency reduced from 25% to 20.5% in group A, 22% to 18% in group B but increased in the control from 27.8% to 30.6%. The Vitamin A status was not associated with any of the anthropometric indices: stunting, underweight and wasting. Conclusion and recommendations: Supplementation significantly reduced the prevalence of underweight but not stunting among the children. Serum retinol levels of the children were significantly increased in the supplemented groups and not in the control. The supplementation, irrespective of the regimen, produced significant eductions in the prevalence of Vitamin A Deficiency. Vitamin A status was not associated with weight-, height- or BMI for age in the school children. Supplementation with multiple micronutrients including vitamin A, Iron and Zinc was found to have beneficial effects in this cohort of school children. More studies are needed to better understand the contribution of schoolchild supplementation with micronutrients in areas where deficiencies of these nutrients are common, before a recommendation to supplement school children with multiple micronutrients can be considered.
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    Assessment of dietary intake and nutritional status of children (under five years) who are HIV positive attending The Aids Support Organization (TASO) Entebbe
    (Makerere University, 2010-11) Jama, Ali Duale
    BACKGROUND: HIV/AIDS still remains a challenging pandemic worldwide, with Sub-Saharan African being the most affected region. In Uganda, the impact of the disease at household, community and national level has been enormous. A large proportion of HIV positive children less than five years of age are malnourished. HIV infection in children less than five years of age increases energy requirements and affects nutritional status through increase in resting energy expenditure, reduction in food intake, nutrient malabsorption and loss, and complex metabolic alterations that culminate in weight loss and wasting which is common in AIDS. Exclusive breastfeeding during the first 6 months of life has been recommended. Exclusive breastfeeding is more protective than mixed feeding for infant’s survival and development followed by complementary foods in addition to breastfeeding for 24 months. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to assess the dietary intake and nutritional status of children under five years who were HIV positive. Specifically the study sought to determine factors affecting children’s nutritional status, the effect of the caretakers’ knowledge attitudes and practices on dietary patterns and establish the health related problems associated with HIV/AIDS that may hinder food intake. METHODS: The total number of children under study was 245. 50.2% were males while 49.8% were females. The methodology undertaken was a cross-sectional study employing both qualitative and quantitative methods. Data was collected using a questionnaire covering background information of the caretakers and children, social economic status, and food consumption patterns/ habits of the children, 24-hr dietary intake, and nutrition knowledge, access to health, and nutrition information. Nutritional status of the children was determined using anthropometric measurements. Epi-Info 2003 statistical package was used to compute Weight-for- age (WAZ), Height-for-age (HAZ), and Weight-for-height (WHZ) z-scores. SPSS version 12.0 was used to present descriptive statistics (Mean, Std. Deviation, and Frequencies). Statistical significance was set at 95% Confidence Interval. RESULTS: The results revealed that exclusive breastfeeding was positively correlated with nutritional status (r2 = 0.624, P= 0.004). In the study, immunization had a positive impact on HIV/AIDS positive children, where 60.4% completed their immunization. The most frequent illness the children got within the past 30 days prior to the research was nausea (14.4%) and the least was difficult in swallowing/Candida esophagus (6.3%). Majority of the children (72.7%) got side effects from the use of ARV drugs including reduced appetite (27.3%), headaches (18.4%), abdominal pain (15.1%), and heartburn (12.7%). The result also revealed that the total number of children who consumed 3 to 4 meals per day was 77.9% while only 12.7% could afford more than 4 meals per day as recommended by MOH (2003). From the results on nutritional information, 63.3% of the caretakers received information on nutrition and care on HIV positive children from health workers in TASO Entebbe Centre. The information included foods good for the patients, foods that should not be given the patients e.g. alcohol, and consequences of poor or/ and bad feeding, improving children’s nutritional status at household level, hygiene and proper sanitation. The survey also revealed that 13.5% of the children were underweight, 11.3% were stunted and 12.1% were wasted while 63.1% were normal. CONCLUSION: From the study it was observed that the children did not meet their requirements for zinc, iron and vitamin A and therefore were at high risk of becoming deficient in these micronutrients
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    Changes in body composition and dietary patterns among HIV positive adults on first line Antiretroviral treatment at The AIDS Support Organisation (TASO) Mulago, Kampala
    (Makerere University, 2010-11) Tsehaye, Biniam
    Background: There is lack of documented information on changes in body composition along with dietary patterns among PLHIV on first line ART in Uganda. In most HIV clinics in Kampala, patients are weighed almost at every visit; however this practice alone does not give adequate information on nutritional status or effectiveness of the treatment and other interventions. Objective: The study aimed at documenting changes in body composition and dietary pattern of HIV positive adults on first line antiretroviral treatment in the first six weeks and ten weeks of treatment. Design and Methods: A longitudinal study was conducted on 102 HIV positive adults commencing ART at TASO Mulago. Body Mass Index (BMI), Bioelectric Impedance Analysis (BIA) and dietary assessments were performed/used to assess changes in body composition and dietary patterns of the study subjects. Results: The participants were aged 18-59 years old of whom 73.5% were women. Significant changes were observed in mean body weight gain (1.6kg± 4.41, p =0.001), fat mass (0.7kg±2.58, p=0.010), lean mass (0.9kg±3.5, p=0.012), body cell mass (0.6kg±1.7, p=0.002) and BMI (0.4±1.2kg/m2, p=0.003) after 10 weeks of commencement on ART. Underweight reduced by 1.9% and overweight and obesity increased by 1.9% and 1% respectively. However there was no significant change in mean (triceps, biceps and subscapular) skinfold measurement. Both male and female subjects did not meet their daily energy requirements. Females had low intake of iron (<20mg) while the male subjects had low intake of vitamin B1 (<1.2mg) at all contacts. The dietary diversity of the subjects was low (less than six food groups) throughout the study period. Conclusion: Individuals on first line antiretroviral treatment showed an increase in body weight, body fat, lean body mass and body cell mass. Although they met their protein requirement, the energy intake was not adequate. Key Recommendation: Antiretroviral treatment among eligible HIV positive individuals should be scaled up as it improves body weight in terms of lean, fat and body cell mass. Also more emphasis should be given to ways of improving macro and micronutrient intake.
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    Dietary contribution of grasshoppers (Ruspolia nitidula) and white ants (Macrotermes bellicosus) and influence of processing methods on their nutrient composition
    (Makerere University, 2011-07) Mbabazi, Muniirah
    Edible insects are a common source of food in Africa. In Uganda, grasshoppers (Ruspolia nitidula) and white ants (Macrotermes bellicosus) commonly known as ensenene and enswa in Luganda, respectively form a common source of food. This study assessed the consumption, source and nutritional contribution of white ants and grasshoppers to the diets of the people of Kampala. The study also determined the effect of common traditional processing methods on the nutritional quality of grasshoppers and white ants. Nutritional contribution of edible insects was assessed using seven day recall questionnaires. Grasshoppers and white ants were subjected to common processing methods namely; dry pan frying, boiling, and boiling followed by sun drying. Proximate composition, protein digestibility, fatty acid profiles and selected minerals of unprocessed and processed samples were determined following standard biochemical procedures. The survey results showed that grasshoppers and white ants consumed in Kampala were mainly purchased or received as gifts by respondents. Grasshoppers contributed about 16,100 kcal and 513g of protein per person per annum. The results further showed that grasshopper and white ants are an expensive source of proteins. On dry basis, grasshoppers contained about 32% protein and 54% fat whereas white ants contained about 31% proteins and 65% fat. Processing methods affected crude fibre, energy in grasshoppers. Crude fibre in grasshoppers reduced (p≤0.05) from 9.1% in the unprocessed to 6.4% in boiled plus sun dried samples. Dry pan frying and boiling followed with sun drying reduced (p≤0.05) the energy content in grasshoppers. In white ants; ash, fat and energy reduced (p≤0.05) after processing. Ash reduced from 6.1% in unprocessed white ants to 4.2% in boiled white ants. Fat reduced from 64.8% in the unprocessed to 44.8% in the boiled white ants. Energy reduced from 1016.4 kcal/100g in the unprocessed to 738.4 Kcal/100g in the dry pan fried white ants. Protein digestibility varied between 34%-67% in grasshoppers and 46%-63% in white ants. Processing did not affect (p≥0.05) protein digestibility in the white ants. However, protein digestibility in grasshoppers decreased (p≤0.05). Boiling alone reduced protein digestibility from 67% in unprocessed grasshoppers to 34% whereas boiling followed with sun drying reduced protein digestibility in grasshoppers to 44%. Fatty acid analysis showed that grasshopper and white ant lipids were predominantly unsaturated, with 59.6% and 56.7% unsaturated fatty acids, respectively. The most dominant unsaturated fatty acids were oleic (MUFA) and linoleic (PUFA) acid in both insects. Saturated fatty acids accounted for 40.5% in grasshoppers and 43.3% in white ants. The most predominant saturated fatty acid in both insects was palmitic acid 31.8% in grasshoppers and 33.3% white ants. Processing methods had no effect (p≥0.05) on the fatty acid composition in grasshoppers and white ants. In both insects the fatty acid profiles after processing were similar to those before processing. These results suggest that grasshoppers and white ants are a good dietary source of animal protein and essential fatty acids, their costs and availability notwithstanding. Common processing methods did not adversely affect the nutritional composition of grasshoppers and white ants. This would contribute to improved health, food and nutrition security hence fight malnutrition in Uganda.
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    Effect of supplementation with iron, vitamin A and zinc on anaemia levels and nutritional status of school children (6-10 years) in Wakiso District
    (Makerere University, 2011-08) Nambozo, Sarah Florence
    Background: Iron deficiency and anaemia during childhood are associated with adverse outcomes like impaired cognitive and motor development and learning difficulties in children. Consumption of diets low in bioavailable iron, vitamin deficiencies and parasitic infections are among the major causes of anaemia in children. School children are a vulnerable group as their growth demands are high. It has been suggested that supplementation with micronutrients may be the best way to improve the nutritional status of children. Objectives: This study assessed the impact of supplementation with iron+ zinc+vitamin A and iron+vitamin A alone on the anaemia levels and nutritional status of school children from a rural setting. Methods: The study was a randomised, controlled longitudinal trial. A total of 156 children were randomly recruited from three government–aided primary schools and randomly assigned to three treatments namely; iron + vitamin A, iron + zinc + vitamin A and a control. The study took a total period of eight months. Structured questionnaires were used to obtain socio-demographic information and Food frequency Questionnaires (FFQ) and 24 hour food recalls were used to obtain the children’s food intake data. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height, MUAC) plus biochemical measurements on blood samples (ferritin and haemoglobin concentrations) of the children were carried out before and after supplementation. Haemogolobin and ferritin concentrations were measured using the HemoCue and Enzyme- Linked Immuno sorbent Assay (ELISA) methods respectively. Epiinfo was used to generate Z-scores for height-for-age (HAZ), weight-for-age (WAZ) and BMI. Nutritional status of the children was classified according to WHO guidelines using z-score below -2SD. WHO guidelines were also used to classify anaemia and iron deficiency of the children. The Students’ t-test was used to test differences in means. Socio-economic data were presented as percentages and frequencies. In all statistical tests, a p-value of <0.05 was considered significant. Results.The mean dietary iron intake was found to be 6.4 mg/day which is below recommended dietary intake (RDI) for children aged 6-10 years of 10 mg/day. The overall prevalence of stunting was 12.5%; underweight was 10% while wasting was 3.7% at baseline. After intervention there were no reductions in the levels of stunting. There was a slight reduction in the underweight levels of the children however this change was not significant. Comparison of mean nutritional status indicators of the treatment and control groups showed no significant differences (p>0.05). The overall prevalence of anaemia was 11.1% and iron deficiency was 10.3% at baseline. After intervention there was a general reduction in the iron deficiency in all the treatment groups. The percentage of reduction was significantly higher in the iron +zinc +vitamin A group than in the iron + Vitamin A alone group (p= 0.01). There was a slight increase in the haemoglobin levels of the children. The increase was higher in the iron +vitamin A group than in the iron + zinc +viamin A group although the change was not significant (p= 0.35). Conclusion and recommendations: The children were found to have inadequate intakes of iron in their diet. Supplementation with iron, zinc and vitamin A did not result in significant positive change in stunting, underweight and wasting levels of the school children. Supplementation with all the three micronutrients together improved the iron status of the children but did not result in a significant increase in their haemoglobin levels. Primary schools should develop programmes for providing nutritious school meals and nutrition education for the children. The practice of backyard farming for both livestock and crops should be promoted in communities to ensure availability of a variety of iron–rich foods. Poverty alleviation programmes should be instituted to enable communities to afford iron-rich foods for their children. More supplementation studies in school children should be conducted to obtain more conclusive evidence of the effect of micronutrient supplementation.
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    Development of a drinkable, peanut-based therapeutic food.
    ( 2012) Nabuuma, Deborah
    Malnutrition plays a major role in child morbidity and mortality. Its prevalence in Uganda continues to be an area of public concern. High ingredient costs continue to hamper local production of Ready-to-Use Therapeutic Foods. Development of formulations without milk, the most expensive ingredient, is one way of reducing cost. This study developed a ready-to-drink, peanut-based, therapeutic food that matched the nutrient composition of F100, using plant sources. Least cost formulations with a similar nutrient profile to F100 were designed using computer formulation software. The ingredients used were peanuts, beans, sesame, cowpeas and grain amaranth. Three formulations namely, A, B, and C were processed. After pre-processing, milling and addition of water, the ingredients were hydrolysed at 40 °C for 4 hours. Amylases from amaranth malted for 48 hours achieved 70 – 84 % starch hydrolysis. Addition of 1 % Bromelain to the mixture led to 55 – 61 % protein hydrolysis. Sterilization of the therapeutic food in glass jars in an autoclave gave non- detectable total plate and yeast and mould counts. A 100 g of therapeutic food was able to provide 101 – 111 Kcal, 5 g protein and 5.3 – 6.5 g fat. Products B and C were liked (extremely and moderately) by 65 and 62 % of mothers of young children five years and below. These results suggest that nutrient dense therapeutic foods formulated from only plant sources have the potential to be used in the rehabilitation phase of the management of malnourished children.
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    Fusarium and fumonisin contamination of maize produced in Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2012-05) Atukwase, Abel
    Maize (Zea mays L.) is a staple food for many Ugandans. During production and storage, the crop may be colonised by Fusarium species which may produce fumonisins that are associated with several animal and human illnesses. Contamination of maize with fumonisins may be influenced by environmental factors as well as agronomic and post-harvest handling practices. This study investigated the occurence and diversity of Fusarium species in maize grown in three agro-ecological zones of Uganda and established the pre and postharvest conditions predisposing maize to fumonisin contamination. The results indicated that maize obtained from the three agro-ecological zones was highly infected with Fusarium species with mean incidences varying between 91.03 and 99.2%. Maize from high altitude had significantly higher (p <0.05) Fusarium incidence than that obtained from mid altitude zones. Members of the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex were the most dominant Fusarium species associated with maize obtained from all the agro-ecological zones. Wide intraspecific variability was observed amongst the strains of G. fujikuroi species complex. Strains of G. moniliformis exhibited the highest level of intraspecific variability evidenced by formation of 5 distinct groups. Phylogenetic analysis did not show a direct relationship between clusters/groups of the isolates and geographical origin. All samples of freshly harvested maize obtained from farmers tested positive for fumonisins. The mean total fumonisin content ranged from 0.27 to 10 mg/kg. Maize obtained from high altitude zone had significantly higher (p < 0.05) mean total fumonisin levels (4.93 mg/kg) than maize from the mid altitude (dry) zone (4.50 mg/kg) and mid altitude (moist) zone (4.53 mg/kg). Intercropping, delayed harvesting and drying maize on bareground were positively associated with fumonisin contamination whereas crop rotation and planting treated seeds were negatively associated. Regression analysis revealed that intercropping was the major factor predisposing maize to fumonisin contamination whereas crop rotation was the major factor reducing the contamination. Majority of the G. fujikuroi strains isolated from maize produced in Uganda were high fumonisin producers. The total fumonisin production varied between 19.4 and 99.8 mg/kg. Strains identified as G. moniliformis (GU257904.1) and G. fujikuroi (EU979565.1) were higher fumonisin producers (39.9-99.8 mg/kg) than those identified as G. moniliformis (FJI54074.1) (0-24.9 mg/kg). The order of fumonisin production potential was G. moniliformis > G. fujikuroi > F. proliferatum. Seven strains (MRC 9059, MRC 9063, MRC 9054, MRC 9053, MRC 9067, MRC 9055 and MRC 9066) produced higher amounts of total fumonisins than the reference strain (MRC 826). Fusarium incidence and fumonisin levels in maize stored in traditional storage structures reduced over the six months storage period. Fusarium incidence significantly decreased (p < 0.05) from an initial average of 61.9 to 31.9% whereas fumonisin levels decreased from an average of 5.7 to 2.8 mg/kg. Maize stored in the granaries had significantly lower (p < 0.05) fumonisin levels than that stored in the mudsilos and the Tua. The total fumonisin levels in maize from all the tested storage structures after 6 months were below the limit of 4 mg/kg recommended by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for maize intended for human consumption. The findings of this study indicated that maize produced in Uganda is contaminated with high levels of fumonisins. This suggests that the maize consuming population in Uganda may be exposed to high levels of fumonisins. To reduce Fusarium infection and fumonisin contamination in maize, farmers are advised to adopt agronomic and postharvest practices like crop rotation, planting treated seeds and avoid intercropping maize with crops that are likely to encourage Fusarium infection and drying the crop on bareground.
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    Determinants of anemia among pregnant women in Kiboga District
    (Makerere University, 2012-10) Naziwa, Ann Marjorie Mbule
    Background: In spite of the various intervention efforts, Uganda, like other developing countries, is plagued by high levels of anemia among pregnant women. Anemia levels among women of reproductive age, (15-49 years) is a matter of national concern. This study was carried out to assess determinants of anemia among pregnant women in Kiboga district, one of the districts in the central region of Uganda, with diverse cultural attributes representative of most ethnic groups in the country. Majority of the people in Kiboga are of the ethnic Ganda who are more inclined to an agrarian economy. Methods: This study was a single cross-section and descriptive survey. Anemia status of the pregnant women was determined by measuring their hemoglobin levels. Possible determinant factors including socio-economic characteristics, knowledge, attitudes, practices and food intake were assessed using a structured questionnaire. Results: The prevalence of anemia among pregnant women in Kiboga district was unacceptably high (63.1%). The uptake and utilisation of the public health intervention package against anemia in pregnancy was low with iron/folic acid supplementation at 13.2%, use of intermittent preventive treatment of malaria at 45.4%, and use of deworming medicines at 14.5%. Consumption of beans and other legumes was particularly high (92.8%) while consumption of red meats (58.6%) and organ meats (10.2%) was inadequate. Women from households that did not have a functional radio were 2.065 times more likely be anaemic (95%CI, 1.08 – 3.0) compared to women from households that owned a functional radio. There was little awareness and functional knowledge about anemia among pregnant women. Only 45.7% could mention any negative outcome of anemia and only 4.9% could identify any iron-rich food. Conclusion: The key determinants of anemia among pregnant women in Kiboga district were wealth status and ownership of a radio. Although anemia prevention and control interventions were being implemented in Kiboga district, there uptake was still low. Recommendations: Anemia prevention and control interventions need to be integrated with poverty reduction and social development programs for success. There is need to develop a comprehensive community based BCC strategy that doesn't only rely on radio but also engages other channels for communication and behavioral change.
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    Association between feeding practices and the nutritional status of children 0- 24 months: a casestudy in Luweero District, Central Uganda
    (Makerere University, 2012-11) Nankumbi, Joyce
    Background: Childhood malnutrition is a significant health problem in developing countries and it has lifelong and irreversible effects especially if it occurs during the early stages of infancy. Care giving and infant and young child feeding practices are critical for child health and development. This study sought to determine the association between infant and young child feeding practices and the nutritional status of children 0-24 months and to identify barriers and supports to appropriate Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices (IYCF). Methodology: The study was cross-sectional survey of 230 households with children 0-24 months in Luweero district, central Uganda. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed to collect data on IYCF practices, children’s nutritional status, and barriers and supports to child feeding practices. A sample size of 230 households with children 0-24 months were visited and interviewed as determined by ENA for SMART. SPSS software (version 15) was used for data entry and analysis. Complementary feeding was characterized by the timing of introduction of complementary foods, age appropriateness of feeds, adequacy of feeding and quality of the complementary feeds. Results: The proportion of caregivers that were exclusive breastfeeding was very low (33.7%) and median duration of breastfeeding was 12.9 months. Despite early initiation of breastfeeding, caregivers still introduced other feeds before the recommended time. Infant and Young Child Feeding Practices were inadequate as reflected by the child feeding index what was the mean score. IYCF practices were significantly related to the stunting among children (χ2=0.526; p=0.029). Insufficient knowledge about infant and young child feeding and cultural practices were the major barriers to caregivers’ IYCF practices. Messages and practical support on IYCF practices often do not reach mothers. Recommendations: It is important to improve a communications strategy aimed at ensuring that all women have equitable access to accurate, clear, and consistent messages about age appropriate IYCF practices.