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The role of social capital in livestock development

(Makerere University, 2015-11) Ntume, Barnabas

Social capital contributes to development through increasing productivity, facilitating coordination and common purpose. However in Uganda, Government and NGO extension systems had not given it due regard. This was probably the agricultural extension systems had not registered significant impact on livestock productivity. It was against this background that a cross sectional study was carried out to determine the role of social capital in livestock development. Data was collected using a structured survey questionnaire, FGDs and key informants interviews were also conducted. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS. The study found eleven (11) social groups and networks existed including Faith groups (25.2%), farmer groups (22.6%), Family groups (22.4%), Others (Clans, Ethnic groups, Community burial groups, informal saving groups) (21.5%), Associations (3.8%), SACCOs (3.1%), women groups (0.9%), and Political parties (0.5%). Social Networks also existed between farmers and institutions (Linking Social Networks) through extension workers (96%). Results further indicated social groups and networks contributed to acquisition of knowledge (40%), skills (32.2%) and technologies (17.1%%), for livestock development, influenced choice of livestock enterprises (75.7%), influenced work (50%), determined access to labor (79.9%), and enhanced access and utilization of financial services (87%%). Mobile phones were important in enhancing social networks and disseminating livestock related information. Phones were useful in contacting veterinary extension workers (42.9%), consult on livestock management (21.9%), share experiences with fellow farmers (23.7%) and improved livestock business transactions (8.7%). FGDs further revealed that social networks were enhanced through regular meetings of network members, visiting each other, helping each other and rearing animals together. The study revealed that social capital plays a central role in livestock development, technology adoption and dissemination.
Assaying for thermostable DNA polymerase activity in putative theromophilic bacteria isolates from selected garbage dumping sites and hot springs, in Uganda

(Makerere University, 2018) Tusuubira, Sharifu

Molecular and biotechnological research and training in Uganda is hampered by the high cost of acquisition of the required/appropriate chemicals and reagents, notably the DNA polymerase enzyme. Subsequently, there is insufficient practical training in molecular techniques, especially the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) based, at tertiary institutions. This study set out to explore bacterial thermophiles from selected compost pits and hot springs in Uganda for production of thermostable polymerases as an alternative source for use in practical training and biotechnology. The study assessed the basic bacteria cell morphology and colony characteristics; and utilized genotypic methods of 16sRNA sequencing together with Naїve Bayesian Classification to offer a statistical test to flag taxa differentially represented between samples. Putative novel bacteria were isolated from selected garbage compost sites and geothermal hot springs in Uganda. The genotyping revealed that an isolate from compost UG-Wampewo belonged to Proteobacterium at 60% degree of confidence; while the hot spring isolates, Ug Kiga_Mud2,and Ug Kiga, are probably a novel species under Genus Aneurinibacillus (80 % degree of confidence) and Genus Pantoea (47%) respectively. Isolate Ug Kiga_Mud1 is most likely to be a strain of Aneurinibacillus thermoaurophillus as indicated by a degree of confidence at 100%. Characterization for polymerase enzyme activity revealed that the crude protein extracted from compost isolates showed negative results when used in PCR while the crude protein extract from the geothermal hot springs showed positive results. The phenotypic characterization of Ug-Wampewo indicated that this putative novel bacterium is a gram negative coccobacillus with very large cream colonies on nutrient agar. The study recommends comprehensive physiological, biochemical and chemotaxonomic characterization of the novel putative organisms. In addition, a detailed assessment of the organisms is recommended in order to explore the potential applications of the novel putative bacteria in industry and biotechnology.
Spatial-temporal patterns and risk factors for respiratory infection outbreaks among mountain gorillas of Volcanoes National park in 2016

( 2018-09-14) Noheli, Jean Bosco

This study was done to determine spatial-temporal patterns, selected risk factors for viral pathogens influencing the incidence, morbidity and persistence of respiratory infection outbreaks among mountain gorillas of Volcanoes National Park in the period of January-December 2016. Spatial temporal patterns were obtained using geo-references data collected during routine health monitoring of twenty one groups of human habituated mountain gorillas. Further, ten saliva and twelve feacal samples were collected from symptomatic individuals for molecular-based detection of selected viral respiratory pathogens. Risk factors were determined through fieldbased observations particularly on age of affected individuals, intergroup social interactions, and identity of groups sharing home range, incidents of gorillas’ movement outside the park, morbidity and persistence of respiratory infections within gorilla groups. Retrospective data on climate patterns collected from 1st January to 31st December 2016 were obtained from Rwanda Meteorological Authority. Also one hundred twenty trackers were interviewed using a structured questionnaire to determine the potential role of selected public interfaces in transmission of respiratory infections. Similarly, annual data on the burden of respiratory infections in humans in areas where trackers live was collected from three health centers. Results revealed that five outbreaks occurred in the southern part of the park whereas three were observed within the northern sector of the park and the annual distribution was equal among the two half of the year with four outbreaks occurring in each. In addition, Human Adenovirus was detected in two of the outbreaks in the northern sector. Overall, morbidity was influenced by age (P = 0.013) and seasonality (P = 4.32 x 10-5). Surprisingly, symptoms of respiratory infections were not observed in 80% of the cases involving groups that had previous social contact and shared home range with infected ones. Further, results showed high diversity among social networks for trackers revealing that markets (social network density = 0.174) were the public interfaces that trackers shared most whereas religious venues (social network density = 0.014) were the public interfaces that trackers shared least. Generally, this study suggests that the incidence, persistence and morbidity due to respiratory infections could be influenced by a complex interaction of multiple factors. The conservation and public health implications of this study’s findings are discussed and further steps like characterizing the detected adenovirus are recommended.
Factors leading to misuse of developed water resources in the cattle corridor, Uganda

( 2018-10) Wanyama, Peter

Water is a fundamental resource in the cattle corridors worldwide. In Uganda, a number of water facilities have been developed in the cattle corridor. Despite this, there is persistent water shortage limiting cattle production. This could be due to misuse regardless of the WUCs. The factors that lead to misuse are however not well known. A cross-sectional study was conducted to: assess factors that influence water development; determine performance of WUCs and identify constraints faced by the WUCs. Primary data was obtained from twelve Focus Group Discussions, twenty four Key Informant Interviews using interview schedules and 317 randomly selected livestock farmers. Results indicated existence of WUCs in all study districts although their composition, roles and performance varied. The major roles of WUCs were: protection of water facilities (44.8%), repair of water facilities (25.6%), collection of user fees (16.4%) and training of users (10.1%). The WUCs were more effective in Nakasongola with positive association between sensitization and performance of WUCs (χ2 = 10.875; p = 0.000). Results also revealed WUCs best practices as: making and enforcement of bye-laws (65.3%), tree planting around water facilities (14.8%) regulating watering time (9.1%), construction of watering troughs (5.7%) and de-silting the water facilities (5.0%). Use of exchange visits (55.8%), drama and folk songs (18.9%), public media (13.2%) and extension workers (12.0%) were consequently identified as means of transferring WUCs’ best practices. Results further indicated: valley tanks (39.4%), valley dams (37.2%), roof catchment (14.8%) and ponds (5.4%) as the common water harvesting technologies used in the cattle corridor and distance of water facility significantly (χ2 = 66.259; p = 0.000) influenced watering frequency. It was further established that livestock water development was influenced by: number of livestock (27.8%), distance to the nearest water point (24.0%), production goal (15.5%), presence of alternative water source (14.8%), livestock watering frequency (11.7%) and water harvesting technology (6.3%). The results however indicated the factors that influence livestock water development varied within and between the study districts (χ2 = 40.232; p= 0.000). The constraints faced by WUCs were identified as: lack of fences on the water facilities (43.5%), poor cooperation of users (27.8%), lack of facilitation (20.2%) and limited capacity building (8.5%).The study recommends fencing and provision of security at water facilities, supporting exchange visits, scaling up sensitization of WUCs and giving incentives to motivate WUCs enhance their performance and ensure sustainability of water facilities in the cattle corridor.
Prevalence and risk factors associated with occurrence of Camel Brucellosis in Mudug Pastoral Region, Somalia

( 2018-10) Mohamoud, Najah Mohamed

Brucellosis a zoonotic disease is primarily a disease of cattle and goats/sheep. Camels however are also infected by B. abortus and B. melitensis, which are from ruminants. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with brucellosis antibodies in camels in the selected districts of Galkacyo, Galdogob and Jariban in Somalia. Blood samples were collected from camels and screened for presence of antibodies using Rose Bengal Test. Seropositive samples were confirmed using I. ELISA. Additional information was collected from camel owners to identify risk factors like demographic characteristics such as sex, age, education of farmers as well as information about risks factors for transmission and maintenance of brucellosis in camels. Of the 420 camels sampled majority were females 86.4% (n=363) and adults 96.9% (407). Of these tested for brucellosis, 3.1% (n=13) were positive by RBPT. Seroprevalence was not significantly affected by sex, age, management system and source of camels (P > 0.05). When the seropositive samples were confirmed with I-ELISA, only 10/13 samples were positive, implying that there were 3/13 false positive results. Education level of camel owner, knowledge about brucellosis, camel abortion history or whether camels were herded separately or communally in village herds all had no significant association with occurrence of brucellosis. However, animals with abortion history showed higher prevalence (2.6%) compared to the ones without history of abortion (0.5%). It was concluded that brucellosis is still prevalent in camels in Somalia and therefore, there is need for increased surveillance in order to effectively control of the disease.
Prevalence and risk factors associated with occurrence of camel brucellosis in Mudug Pastoral Region, Somalia

(Makerere University, 2018-10) Najah, Mohamed Mohamoud

Brucellosis a zoonotic disease is primarily a disease of cattle and goats/sheep. Camels however are also infected by B. abortus and B. melitensis, which are from ruminants. A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors associated with brucellosis antibodies in camels in the selected districts of Galkacyo, Galdogob and Jariban in Somalia. Blood samples were collected from camels and screened for presence of antibodies using Rose Bengal Test. Seropositive samples were confirmed using I. ELISA. Additional information was collected from camel owners to identify risk factors like demographic characteristics such as sex, age, education of farmers as well as information about risks factors for transmission and maintenance of brucellosis in camels. Of the 420 camels sampled majority were females 86.4% (n=363) and adults 96.9% (407). Of these tested for brucellosis, 3.1% (n=13) were positive by RBPT. Seroprevalence was not significantly affected by sex, age, management system and source of camels (P > 0.05). When the seropositive samples were confirmed with I-ELISA, only 10/13 samples were positive, implying that there were 3/13 false positive results. Education level of camel owner, knowledge about brucellosis, camel abortion history or whether camels were herded separately or communally in village herds all had no significant association with occurrence of brucellosis. However, animals with abortion history showed higher prevalence (2.6%) compared to the ones without history of abortion (0.5%). It was concluded that brucellosis is still prevalent in camels in Somalia and therefore, there is need for increased surveillance in order to effectively control of the disease.
Diet selection strategies of Grauer's Gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri) in relation to nutritional benefits and exposure to hepatotoxic phytochemical in Mount Tshiabirimu Forest, Virunga National Park, DRC

( 2018-10-01) Kambale, Syaluha Eddy

The study aimed at understanding nutritional benefits and challenges encountered by the current population of Grauer’s gorillas on Mount Tshiabirimu within Virunga National Park. The relative concentrations of selected phytochemicals, nutrients and minerals were determined for eleven priority food plant species using multiple conventional methods. Results showed that all food plants differed with respect to concentrations of saponins, tannins and flavonoids (P<0.05). In addition, the food plants had higher levels of tannins followed by flavonoids, saponins and alkaloids respectively. Further, results demonstrated that food plants contained higher concentrations of carbohydrates followed by ash, dietary fiber, crude protein and lipids respectively. However, the carbohydrates concentration did not differ across food plants (P=0.68). In contrast, the concentrations of lipids, dietary fiber, ash and crude protein were different across food plants (P<0.05). Results also showed that, with the exception of Urera hypselodendron, all the most eaten food plants had the low protein-fiber ratio (below 1) whereas the less frequently eaten plants had high protein-fiber ratio (above 1) excluding Galium chloroionanthum. With respect to minerals, the concentrations of calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, potassium, copper and iron were different across food plants (P<0.05). Moreover, the concentration of potassium was higher than that of calcium followed by magnesium, phosphorus and sodium respectively across food plants. In addition, results demonstrated that the most commonly fed on food plants tended to have lower concentrations of alkaloids, flavonoids, magnesium, ash and lipids than the less commonly fed on plant species. Notably, the study revealed presence of hepatotoxic alkaloids, deficiency of lipids, sodium and copper in all food plants. The implications of the study findings on gorilla health are discussed.
Identification of suitable genes for RNAi silencing of aflatoxigenic apergillus flavus isolated from groundnuts in Uganda

( 2018-10-11) Ssekandi, Joseph Jr

Aflatoxins are lethal and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced mainly by fungi of the Aspergillus genus, key among which is Aspergillus flavus. Previous research has shown that Ugandans are chronically exposed to these carcinogens and yet breeding A. flavus resistant varieties can be a sustainable solution to this problem. This study aimed at providing novel knowledge to groundnut breeders on which genes are suitable to silence in A. flavus so as to inhibit its growth using the RNAi technique triggered by dsRNA. Ten A. flavus isolates were isolated on Modified Rose Bengal Agar from 43 groundnut seed samples collected from Tororo, Soroti and Kamuli districts in Eastern Uganda and an Agraquant total aflatoxin ELISA kit was used to determine the amount of aflatoxins they produce. Only one isolate was non-toxigenic while others produced total aflatoxin ranging from five to over 2000 parts per billion. Thus there is diversity in A. flavus based on aflatoxin production ability. To determine the suitable genes for RNAi silencing in A. flavus, dsRNAs specific to 13 essential genes were transcribed in vitro using a T7 transcription kit. A. flavus spores were then exposed to these dsRNAs or sterile water for the controls and plated on ¼ strength PDA. Percentage spore growth inhibition was calculated and this spore growth inhibition data was subjected to ANOVA. Spore growth inhibition was significantly higher in all spores treated with dsRNAs targeting A. flavus essential genes in comparison to the controls treated with sterile water (df = 13, p < 0.001). Amongst the dsRNA treatments, silencing UBI, COH, 26s, ATP, PPK, IMP and ABC genes resulted in significantly higher spore growth inhibition than silencing GTT, HEL, PTRs, EXP, DRF and MOT genes (df = 13, p < 0.001). This study thus recommends UBI, COH, 26s, ATP, PPK, IMP and ABC as the suitable genes for RNAi silencing of A. flavus in vivo and also recommends a follow up study to establish the molecular basis for A. flavus diversity based on aflatoxin production ability.
Assessment of event mobile application for livestock disease reporting in Karamoja

(Makerere University, 2018-11) Okori, Ongom Edward

The context of this study draws immensely from the global human and animal disease reporting perspectives, guided by the tripartite frameworks of WHO, FAO and OIE through their tools of IHR, EMPRES and PVS respectively down to the Pan African AU-IBAR, the East African Regional platform mandated by two Regional Economic Communities (RECs): IGAD and EAC. It further hinges on the premise that the success of disease reporting from the field depends on the competences to recognize clinical manifestations of the disease being reported, in addition to the use of diagnostic laboratories as key support to the diagnostic process. The high rejection of disease reports collected using EMA-i tool by field data collectors from Karamoja region of Uganda was the main objective of this study. The study purpose was to assess the impact of level of education and profession on the knowledge of EMA-i protocols. Forty one (41) data collectors from Karamoja, comprising of CAHWs, veterinary paraprofessionals and veterinarians were purposively selected and administered structured questionnaires for quantitative data analysis. In addition, a total of 18 key informants’ interviews including all the 7 Karamoja DVOs, 3 Karamoja based Veterinarians; 3 Officials from NADDEC/MAAIF, 3 paraprofessionals and 2 CAHWs leaders from Karamoja. In addition, 2 FGDs were held in Kotido district. The results from analysis of quantitative data, targeting education level, found out that out of the 41 reporters, only 1 primary reporter with education was knowledgeable while 5 were unknowledgeable; for Secondary education, 6 were knowledgeable and 4 unknowledgeable, whereas Diploma holders 6 were knowledgeable, and 1 not knowledgeable; while all the 18 University degree graduates were knowledgeable in most areas of the EMA-i protocol. Whereas for profession, 10 CAHWs were not knowledgeable and 9 knowledgeable while the 22 paraprofessionals and veterinarians were found to be knowledgeable in providing overall information on disease reporting using EMA-i. The information from the quantitative and qualitative data was triangulated with the results of EMA-i data from Karamoja during July 2016 to September 2017 that showed 45% of disease reports were invalidated. Basing on saturated opinion by KIs, it was established that most data by CAHWs are invalidated due to wrong diagnosis, indicative of their inadequacy in knowledge of the EMA-i tool, thus leading to the concluding that the level of education, is the main factor to quality of disease data.
Porcine cyticercosis in selected districts of Uganda: Prevalence, pathology and relationship with human epilepsy

(Makerere University, 2018-12) Nsadha, Zachary

Taenia solium is a cestode that is zoonotic with the adult tapeworms found in human being (taeniasis) and larval stage cysts found in pigs (Porcine cysticercosis) or in humans (human cysticercosis). It is therefore a great disease of economic and public health importance. There are many instances when porcine cysticercosis has been found at meat inspection in parts in Uganda. No detailed study had been carried out on T. solium infections in Uganda. The aims of this study were to determine; the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis, risk factors for the acquisition of the infection, T. solium diagnosis and control, pathology of T. solium infection in naturally infected pigs and the spatial distribution of human epilepsy with taeniasis and and porcine cysticercosis. A cross sectional study was carried out the Lake Kyoga basin, international border points and national pig abattoir at Wambizi. Laboratory serodiagnosis was also carried out to determine the antigen sero-prevalence. Lingual examination was carried out for lingual prevalence. The lingual prevalence of porcine cysitercosis ranged from 4% to 12.9% for the areas of study in the Lake Kyoga basin. The sero-prevalence was found to be 25.3% (95% confidence interval 21.0- 30.0%) with district sero-prevalence ranging from 20.3-33.9%. The risk factors were; contaminated water used in the households and animal use, improper handling of infected pigs and pork for human consumption, human open-air defecations, inadequate knowledge about T. solium infections in the communities, inadequate control measures by the Veterinary Authorities, free-range pig husbandry. There was a positive spatial relationship between porcine cysticercosis, taeniasis and human epilepsy. In pig carcasses, the infection could be found in the non-traditional sites hence the lesion is more wide spread than what is covered in ordinary meat inspections. Cytokine TNF-α storm was observed in terminally-ill cysticercotic pigs. In conclusion the results indicate that porcine cysticercosis was prevalent and endemic in the in study areas, therefore a great problem. The risk factors for the acquisition of T. solium infections, which are the ideal areas of intervention and control of T. solium infection, exist in the study areas. A positive spatial relationship of porcine cysticercosis and human epilepsy occurs. I therefore recommend that deliberate interventions to reduce the T. solium infections in the pig and human beings need to be carried out. A study to find prevalence of human cysticercosis should be carried out the role of T. solium infection in the human human epilepsy. A study about the genetic diversity of T. solium in Ugnda should be carried out.
Association between malaria preventive treatment regimens in pregnancy and plasmodium falciparum drug resistance mediating polymorphisms in Busia district, Eastern Uganda

(Makerere University, 2020-06) Nayebare, Patience

Intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) with monthly sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) is recommended for malaria-endemic parts of Africa, but efficacy is compromised by resistance and, in recent trials, dihydroartemesinin-piperaquine (DP) has shown better antimalarial protective efficacy. We utilized blood samples from a recent trial to evaluate selection by IPTp with dihydroartemesinin-piperaquine or sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine of Plasmodium falciparum genetic polymorphisms that alter sensitivity to these drugs. The prevalence of known genetic polymorphisms associated with altered drug sensitivity was determined in parasitemic samples, including 375 collected before IPTp drugs were administered, 125 randomly selected from those receiving sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, and 80 from those receiving dihydroartemesinin-piperaquine. For women receiving dihydroartemesinin-piperaquine, the prevalence of mixed/mutant sequences was greater in samples collected during IPTp compared to that in samples collected prior to the intervention for PfMDR1 N86Y (19.7% vs. 4.1%, p<0.001),PfMDR1 Y184F (73.7% vs. 53.6%, p=0.002), and PfCRT K76T (45.6% vs. 24.4%, p=0.002).Considering sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, prior to IPTp the prevalence of all five common antifolate mutations was over 92%, and this prevalence increased following exposure to sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, although none of these changes were statistically significant. The prevalence of two additional mutations associated with high-level sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine resistance was greater, but not significantly so, in samples collected during IPTp compared to those collected before the intervention (PfDHFR 164L: 9.3% vs.3.9%, p=0.07; PfDHPS 581G: 3.4% vs. 2.9%, p=0.73). Use of IPTp in Uganda selected for parasites with mutations associated with decreased sensitivity to IPTp regimens. Principal component analysis suggested that gravidity, parasite density, gestational age, participant age and treatment regimen contributed to the differences in prevalence of polymorphisms before and after IPTp.
Characterisation of integrons which potentially mediate dissemination of antibiotic resistance in enterobacteriaceae isolated from healthy community members

(Makerere University, 2020-10) Ato, Adera Doreen

Antibiotic resistance has become a global public health concern, by limiting the number of drugs used to treat bacterial infections. Antimicrobial resistance and multidrug resistance (MDR) therefore increase morbidity and mortality of people having bacterial infections in the community. Integrons are known as the genetic agents responsible for the capture and spread of antibiotic resistance determinants among diverse Gram-negative bacteria isolates. The activities of integrons have assisted the introduction of antibiotic resistance into genes pathogens and commensals of humans. Several studies have shown that integrons play a significant role in the spread of antibiotic resistance. This study examined the role of integrons in the spread of antibiotic resistance in Enterobacteriaceae from faeces of healthy community members. The antibiotic resistance patterns of 32 Escherichia coli and 8 Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were determined by Kirby disk diffusion and conjugation was used to determine the transfer rates of antibiotic resistance. The 40 bacteria isolates were then tested for presence of integrons by polymerase chain reaction and the integrons present characterised by amplifying the integron variable region. The PCR amplicons of the integron variable region were then sequenced to determine the antibiotic resistance gene cassettes present. The isolates were found to have high resistance to beta-lactams (100%), sulphonamides (100%) and fluoroquinolones (88%). A high frequency of transfer ranging from 9×10-2 to 1.1×103 transconjugants per recipient E. coli J53 strain was recorded. The prevalence of class 1, class 2 and class 3 integrons were 100%, 35% and 0%. The integron cassette profiles were aadA1 (70%), dfrA17 (50%) and dfrA7 (10%) and they confer resistance to aminoglycosides and trimethoprim. The study revealed that 23 (58%) Escherichia coli and 2 (5%) Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were MDR. The study also revealed that integrons with antibiotic resistance genes aadA1, dfrA7 and dfrA17are present in the isolates from healthy community members, thus they have a potential to capture genes which confer resistance to various antibiotics. The study recommends proper use of antibiotics, improved personal hygiene and sanitation to minimize the oral faecal spread of antibiotic resistance in the community. The study also recommends characterisation of transconjugants to determine which resistance gene cassettes are most disseminated.
Isolation of Staphylococcus Aureus and factors for colonization at a selected animal clinic in Kampala, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2021) Nabatta, Esther

Background: Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) colonizes numerous body sites and is one of the most frequently isolated bacteria associated with nosocomial infections worldwide. Treatment with antibiotics remains the cornerstone for control of these infections but this has been hampered by the emergence of resistant S. aureus which are shared pathogens of both medical and veterinary importance. Whereas comprehensive data on dynamics of body site colonization and antibiotic-resistant strains in animals and humans is available elsewhere, related information is very limited in sub-Saharan Africa including Uganda. Methods: A total of 303 swabs (156 swabs from out-patient dogs, 122 swabs from humans and 25 swabs from environmental surfaces) were collected and cultured for S. aureus. The isolates were subjected to a panel of 9 antibiotics and the drug resistance patterns determined. The isolates were then tested for the presence of the mec A and tet M genes using a conventional PCR. Results: The overall prevalence of S. aureus was 11.9% (36/303). Prevalence as per sample type was reported as 10.9% (17/156), 11.5% (14/122) and 20.0% (5/25) in pets, humans and the environment respectively. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of S. aureus isolated from pets, humans and the clinic environment. Nevertheless, monthly pet house cleaning frequency was a significantly associated with S. aureus prevalence in dogs (p=0.001). The highest resistance was observed against penicillin (100%), followed by resistance against tetracycline (70.6% to 100%). There was no resistance observed against gentamicin. The overall burden of MDR S. aureus was 75.0% (27/36). The tet M gene was detected in 47.2% (17/36) S. aureus isolates. Conclusion: Dogs had the highest prevalence of S. aureus compared to humans and the environment. There was no resistance observed against gentamycin making it the best drug of choice of drug to deal with S. aureus isolates in the event that there was an infection. Multidrug-resistant S. aureus colonizes both animate and inanimate surfaces and therefore these can be means of sharing MDR S. aureus. Resistance gene tet M was detected from S. aureus isolated irrespective of their phenotypic resistance and therefore care should be taken on use of antibiotics to avoid development of induced resistance. Lastly monthly pet house cleaning frequency was the only significant factor for colonization with S. aureus, suggesting that infections could be escalated by poor cleaning practices.
Molecular characterization, antibiotic susceptibility and phage sensitivity of Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from colibacillosis cases

(Makerere University, 2021-02-22) Kazibwe, George

Avian Pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) cause extra-intestinal infections collectively known as colibacillosis, which result into significant economic losses for the poultry industry. The aim of this study was to characterize the prevailing Avian Pathogenic E. coli isolates and establish stocks of APEC lytic bacteriophages, for future development of cocktail products as alternatives to antibiotics in the management of avian colibacillosis. Fifty-six (56) glycerol stocks of Escherichia coli isolates obtained from chicken that had died of colibacillosis were analyzed for virulence, serogroup, phylogroup, antimicrobial susceptibility, and sensitivity to lytic phages. Escherichia coli characterization was done through phenotypic and multiplex PCR methods whereas antimicrobial susceptibility was done by Disk-diffusion method. Bacteriophage isolation and preliminary characterization was achieved using the spot assay and overlay plating techniques. All the 56 (100%) APEC isolates were resistant to at least one antibiotic while 50 (89.3%) isolates were resistant to at least three classes of antimicrobial drugs and were therefore designated as multi-drug resistant. All the selected five virulence genes were detected in the isolates with 39 (69.6%) of the isolates having at least one virulence gene. The virulence genes, ompT and iutA were the most frequent with 33 (58.9%) and 32 (57.1%) isolates respectively; while iroN least occurred in 23 (41.1%) isolates. Of the 56 E. coli isolates, 25 (44.6%) belonged to phylogroup A, 8 (14.3%) belonged to phylogroup B1, 1 (1.8%) belonged to phylogroup B2 and 22 (39.3%) belonged to phylogroup D. None of the 56 APEC isolates generated amplicons of sizes expected for the O1, O2 and O78 serogroups. Out of the seven isolated phages; two had the broadest host range with a combined lytic activity against 14 (25%) of the APEC isolates, coupled with stability to heat up to 60℃ and viability in pH ranging from 2 to 12. These results demonstrate that determining the presence of virulence genes can aid in confirmation of avian colibacillosis. The high level of resistance to the most commonly used antibiotics calls for a search for alternative treatment options like phage therapy in addition to antimicrobial susceptibility testing before treatment so as to limit economic losses due to ineffective treatment.
Morphological and molecular identification of forensically important insect species (Diptera) in Kampala, Uganda using Mitochondrial Cytochrome Oxidase I Gene

(Makerere University, 2021-02-26) Mutesi, Lilian Doris

Insects attracted to corpses may provide important indications of the period post death otherwise called post-mortem interval (PMI), criminal event reconstruction, solving criminal cases, corpse movement and cases of neglect. The use of insects (Diptera) for PMI estimation in Uganda is of limited use since blowfly immature stages are not morphologically distinct. However, this has been solved by the use of molecular techniques which help identify insect species regardless of stage of development. They are quick, accurate and cost-effective. This study was conducted to identify insect species of forensic importance during decomposition stages of pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) carcasses in Kampala, Uganda. Forensically important adult insect specimens were collected from outdoor (n=150) and indoor (n=120) carcasses and identified using taxonomic keys. Molecular identification of insect larvae was also done using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I partial gene followed by Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP), sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The five stages of decomposition of the pig carcasses were categorized as: fresh, bloated, active, advanced and dry. The rate of decomposition in outdoor was faster than that in indoor environment. Three different families of Diptera; Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae, and Muscidae were identified morphologically from both indoor and outdoor environments. The most abundant adult insect species was Chrysomya chloropyga (34.6%) and Chrysomya putoria (28.3%) for the outdoor and indoor environments, respectively. Sarcophaga bercaea was the least abundant adult insect species for both environments. All the species were present in the bloated and decay stages. Only Chrysomya chloropyga was found in the post decay stage. Other species were not observed in the post decay stage. Sarcophaga bercaea was not present in the bloated indoor.No insects were in the dry stage. Among insect larvae collected, Chrysomya putoria (32%) and Chrysomya chloropyga (48.1%) were the most abundant insect larvae from the indoor and outdoor environments respectively. Chrysomya albiceps (20%) and Hemipyrellia fernandica (10.9%) were the least abundant from the indoor and outdoor environments, respectively.Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial COI gene of insect larvae clearly clustered together and separated into four genetic clades of Calliphoridae flies (Chrysomya putoria, Chrysomya chloropyga, Chrysomya albiceps and Hemipyrellia fernandica). A fragment of the mitochondrial COI partial gene in this study displayed that DNA-based method can be used as supplemental means to morphological method for identification of the Calliphoridae as insect species of forensic importance in the different environments in Uganda. This concept should be extended to human corpses so that if they are consistent with results from Sus scrofa domesticus carcasses then this technique should be explored for homicide investigations in Uganda.
Seroprevalence of brucellosis in humans, knowledge and practices among patients and medical practitioners in Wakiso District, Uganda

(Makerere University, 2021-03-05) Namuwonge, Alice Joy

Brucellosis is an endemic zoonotic disease of public health and veterinary importance with significant economic losses such as therapy costs, lost income due to time lost by patients away from daily activities and reduced livestock productivity. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence and level of knowledge of patients about human brucellosis, and assess knowledge and treatment practices of medical practitioners regarding human brucellosis. A cross-sectional study was conducted using a questionnaire and key informant guide among 300 patients and 30 medical practitioners respectively between May2019and July 2019, and retrospectively reviewed medical records of patients diagnosed and treated for brucellosis during the past5years(2014-2018) at Zia Angelina H/CIII, Wakiso district, Central Uganda. Serum samples were tested for Brucella antibodies using Rose Bengal Plate Test. Associations between study participants’ demographics and knowledge were analysed using Chi-square and Fisher's exact tests. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed to measure the strength of association between the dependent and independent variables of medical practitioners using odds ratios at95% confidence intervals. Variables with a p-value <0.05 were considered statistically significant. The seroprevalence of human brucellosis was 0.3%. Only 6.3% and 26.7% of patients and medical practitioners were knowledgeable about human brucellosis respectively. Patient’s level of knowledge was significantly associated with their age, education level and marital status whereas education level was significantly associated with medical practitioner’s knowledge. On the other hand, 26.7% of medical practitioners reported good practice in management of brucellosis. A multivariate analysis highlighted that knowledge of medical practitioners had a significant effect on their practice, [OR=0.03, 95% CI:0.00-0.29, P=0.002]. According to the review, out of the 42 patients treated for brucellosis, only 26.2% were treated as recommended in the national clinical guidelines. The prevalence of human brucellosis was very low, and patients had poor knowledge about the disease but the study could not determine whether patient’s knowledge influenced disease outcome. Medical practitioners were inadequately knowledgeable and showed poor practices regarding human brucellosis. This suggests a need for health education and capacity building among medical practitioners.
Molecular cloning and recombinant protein expression of 9-lipoxygenase gene from solanum tuberosum in pichia pastoris yeast cells

(Makerere University, 2021-03-05) Olengo, Alex

Lipoxygenases (LOX) are ubiquitous non-heme Iron-containing dioxygenases that catalyze the addition of molecular oxygen to Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) such as Linoleic acid to form Oxylipins that possess anti-microbial activity. Synthetic fungicides have effectively controlled plant pathogenic fungi but their continued use has been detrimental to natural biological systems, and sometimes resulted in the development of fungal resistance. They also have undesirable effects on non-target organisms and foster environmental and human health concerns thus new biodegradable alternatives have to be investigated. The aim of this study was to generate a recombinant 9-Lipoxygenase protein for chemo enzymatic synthesis of Oxylipin based biodegradable fungicides. Golden gate assembly, a molecular cloning method that allows assembly of many DNA fragments into a complete piece using Type II s restriction enzymes and T4 DNA ligase was used to clone the large size of 9-LOX gene insert (2629bp). Three 9-LOX fragments were amplified from PET-28a-9-LOX recombinant plasmid vector and sub cloned individually into 3 intermediary level 0 vector pAGM35763. The recombinant intermediary plasmid vectors containing the 9-LOX fragments were used in a restriction-ligation reaction to assemble the 9- LOX fragments in the right sequence order into the destination plasmid vector pPICZaB. Chemically competent DH10B Escherichia coli cells were transformed with the ligation product, transformants selected and recombinant plasmid extracted and quantified. To achieve protein expression, the extracted recombinant plasmid vector pPICZaB was linearized and transformed into electrocompetent Pichia pastoris X-33 cells and grown on YPDS agar. Five Zeocin resistant transformant colonies were grown in BMMY media at 30°C and 250rpm for 4 days. Protein expression was induced by the addition of absolute methanol (0.5%) and methanol added every after 24h for up to 4 days to maintain protein expression. Analysis of protein expression from cell lysates was achieved by running an SDS-PAGE and Western blotting which showed a putative protein band of 97kDa representing 9-LOX protein. Results confirmed successful expression of recombinant 9-LOX protein in Pichia pastoris strain X-33. It is recommended that optimization studies on the yeast kex2 convertase and the a- secretion factor can be done to reinforce the secretion of recombinant Solanum tuberosum 9-LOX protein since the protein in this study was recovered from cell lysates.
Seroprevalence and factors associated with brucellosis in cattle, goats and sheep in Karenga subcounty, Kaabong District

(Makerere University, 2021-03-10) Egaru, Daniel

Worldwide, brucellosis is a zoonotic disease of great public health and economic importance. It is one of the seven priority zoonoses in Uganda. This study was conducted in Karenga sub-county, Kaabong district. The main objective was to determine the status of brucellosis in cattle, goats and sheep in 26 protected kraals. A total of (504) blood samples were collected that is 245 were from cattle, goats (234) and sheep (25). In addition, a structured questionnaire was administered in all the 26 kraals. All the four parishes of Karenga sub-county were considered in the study. These were Loyoro, Karenga, Nakitoit and Kangole parishes. The blood samples were tested using Rose Bengal Test (RBT). Out of 245 blood samples of cattle tested, 29 were positive, giving a prevalence of 11.8%. By parish, the seroprevalence in cattle ranged from 7.5% in Kangole parish, loyoro 9.6%, Karenga 13.6%to19%in Nakitoit parish. Male cattle had a higher seroprevalence of 14.8% compared to 9.3% in females. By age group, cattle aged 3 to 5.9 years had the highest seroprevalence of 17.8%, and those aged to 8.9 years had the lowest seroprevalence of 12.5%. Out of 234 blood samples from goats tested, 14 were positive, giving a seroprevalence of 5.9%. Karenga parish had the highest seroprevalence of 7.5%, followed by Loyoro parish (5.9%) and Nakitoit parish (3%). All goat blood samples from Kangole parish were negative. The seroprevalence in male goats was 6.5%, while it was 5.2% in females. Brucellosis seropositivity was recorded in only goats aged 0 to 2.9 years (2%) and 3 to 5.9 years (11%). All the 25 blood samples from sheep were negative for brucellosis. The major kraal factors that influenced seroprevalence of brucellosis in cattle and goats were mixing of herds and flocks during communal grazing, sharing of water points, grazing of domestic livestock with wild animals in Kidepo Valley National Park, handling and poor disposal of aborted materials. Findings of this study have shown that the prevalence of brucellosis in Karenga sub-county is higher in cattle (11.8%) than in goats (5.9%) and in sheep (0%). It is recommended to educate the public, especially livestock keepers on the risk of infection by Brucella organisms and preventive measures.
Knowledge and practice of dairy cattle zero grazing farmers in Kabale Municipality, South-western Uganda

(Makerere University, 2022) Kabagambe, Bernard

The study sought to examine the knowledge and practices of dairy cattle zero grazing farmers in Kabale municipality, Kabale district a south western region in Uganda. There has not been sufficient studies on farmers’ knowledge of zero grazing and its practices and the factors influencing it. The aim was to gain a better understanding of factors influencing zero grazing adoption, identify areas where zero grazing farmers lack in knowledge and assess how to boost their practices. Ultimately this study sought to subsequently make available information that could be used by extension workers, researchers, scientists and policy makers to further the promotion of zero grazing within the study area and beyond the confines of the study area. Data was collected using cross-sectional study design both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used in which the design allowed data to be collected at a single point in time to capture important aspects of the study. The researcher collected only primary data directly from the respondents of the selected farmers using a self-administered questionnaire and an interview guide to accomplish the study. The targeted population was 700 zero grazing cattle keepers within Kabale municipality from which a sample size of 255 was obtained. The main findings were that most of the dairy farmers in the study area demonstrated having basic knowledge about zero-grazing (80% of the respondents) but with limited awareness of vital technical skills in improved feeds and feeding; disease management; breed selection; and housing. The attitude of dairy farmers towards zero-grazing was mixed with positive perception attributed to profitability, space requirement, manure accumulation and disease control while negative perception was based on laborious nature of the enterprise, the time demanded and the cost incurred in starting up the use of the technology. It is therefore imperative that players in the country’s agricultural extension system need to boost efforts towards developing key transferrable knowledge packages and deliver such to dairy farmers on a regular basis to ensure the most efficient practices of dairy cattle zero grazing is a success in Kabale Municipality.
Phytochemical composition of Capsicum frutescens and its effect on growth, carcass, organoleptic and feed cost parameters of indigenous and broiler chickens

( 2022) Sebulime, Peregrine

Chicken meat is a major source of animal protein and its production has increased globally by 25% in the last decade mostly in Asia and Africa. However, due to the ever-increasing problem of antibiotic resistance, routine non-therapeutic antimicrobial use in chicken production systems is no longer considered a reasonable and viable practice. Natural products are among the preferred replacers of antibiotics for non-therapeutic uses such as promoting growth. In addition, the chicken meat produced from systems utilizing natural products is considered safer and protective of consumer health. Herbs and spices are important sources of natural products that can be used to improve growth and carcass traits of chickens in Uganda. Capsicum frutescens is among the common spices easily accessible but its use as an enhancer of growth and carcass traits in intensive chicken production systems has not yet been investigated in Uganda. This study aimed at establishing phytochemical composition and identification of dietary inclusion levels of Capsicum frutescens powder with positive effects on growth, carcass and organoleptic parameters of indigenous chickens and on growth and carcass traits of broilers. The phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of C. frutescens powder were determined using conventional methods. A completely randomized design was used for each of three experiments for broilers and for each of the two experiments for indigenous chickens. The three experiments on broilers were differentiated by the durations of feeding diets enriched with C. frutescens. The three durations were: 13 days, 19 days and 24 days. Each duration represented the number of days prior to 59 days of age which was the age of slaughter. In each broiler experiment, three treatments defined by three dietary inclusion levels (1.1%, 2.2%, 4.4%) of C. frutescens powder were each randomly assigned to a group of forty-five broilers housed in three pens with each pen consisting of fifteen broilers. In addition, each experiment had a control group with forty-five broilers housed in three pens with each pen consisting of fifteen broilers. The control group received only the basal finisher diet. For the indigenous chickens, one of the experiments utilised cotton seed cake as the lipid source whereas sunflower seed cake was the source of lipids in the other. In the experiment where cotton seed cake was utilised, three treatments defined by inclusion levels (1.1%, 2.2%, 4.4%) of C. frutescens powder in diets, were each randomly assigned to a group of forty-five chickens housed in three pens with each pen consisting of fifteen chickens. The control group of this experiment had forty-five chickens housed in three pens with each pen consisting of fifteen chickens. The control group received only the basal diet. The other experiment of the indigenous chickens, where sunflower seed cake was utilised as lipid source, had two replicates instead of three and the treatments as well as number of chickens per replicate were similar to that earlier described for indigenous chickens. In both experiments of indigenous chickens, the chickens were aged 199 days at the start of the experiment and the duration of the experiment was 37 days. Results indicated that C. frutescens powder has several phytochemicals including alkaloids, coumarins, saponins, anthracenosides and reducing compounds. In addition, the total phenolic content, alkaloids and saponins were 587.75 mg GAE/100g, 6.8% and 23.5%, respectively. Further, the antioxidant activity scores based on DPPH radical scavenging activity at concentrations 100, 200, 400, and 500 ug/mL were 17.08, 20.75, 29.82, and 33.31%, respectively. Among broilers, diets formulated with 2.2% inclusion level and provided for 19 days had positive effects represented by significant increase in final body weight (1257.50±26.40g, P=0.007), carcass weight (786.18±22.39g, P=0.006) and gizzard weight (33.37±1.23g, P=0.02) by 14%, 15% and 12%, respectively relative to the control. Similarly, among indigenous chickens, diets with sunflower seed cake formulated with 2.2% inclusion level had positive effects demonstrated by significant increase in heart weight (4.00±0.33g, P=0.001), liver weight (15.30±0.80, P=0.04), proventriculus weight (4.25±0.14g, P=0.004) and intestine weight (82.50±3.58g, P=0.002) by 38%, 15%, 25%, and 21% respectively. Further, the 1.1% inclusion level increased intestine weight (68.00±2.17g, P=0.0002) by 26% whereas 4.4% inclusion level increased heart weight (3.60±0.21g, P=0.04) by 24% among indigenous chickens fed diets with sunflower seed cake. In contrast, the 4.4% inclusion level significantly decreased the body weight (912.50±32.05g, P=0.01), carcass weight (592.30±23.43g, P=0.04) and intestine weight (65.83±1.94g, P=0.001) by 12%, 10%, and 17% respectively among indigenous chickens on diets with cotton seed cake. Further, the 1.1% inclusion level decreased the liver weight (13.27±0.66g, P=0.02) by 14% whereas the 2.2% inclusion level decreased the heart weight (2.97±0.18g, P=0.001) by 19% among indigenous chickens on diets with cotton seed cake. Furthermore, results showed that none of the inclusion levels of C. frutescens had an effect on texture, taste, juiciness and overall acceptability of meat from indigenous chickens. The results of this study highlight that C. frutescens has several beneficial phytochemical compounds and high antioxidant activity for improving broiler growth and carcass yield. Further, an inclusion level of 2.2% in finisher diets for 19 days is acceptable since it has capacity to improve final body weight and carcass weight of broilers by 14% and 15% respectively relative to the control. Similarly, an inclusion level of 2.2% in diets with sunflower seed cake is recommended for indigenous chicken effective 199 days of age due to potential to improve carcass yield.

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